AYE P BIO NOTES FOR THE WHOLE YEAR
(send message on site if you have any problems or questions cause I can provide lecture
videos my teacher recorded or I can provide lecture slides for certain topics that you struggle
with)
Macromolecules
❖ Although cells are 70-80% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
➢ Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse
molecules.
■ Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
● In molecules with multiple carbons each carbon bonded to four
other atoms has a tetrahedral shape
● When two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the
molecule has a flat shape.
■ Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates and other molecules that distinguish living
matter are all composed of carbon compounds
■ Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules
● Carbon chains vary in length and shape
❖ Isomers
➢ Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures
and properties
■ Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms
■ Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in
spatial arrangements
➢ Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other.
■ There can be Enantiomers of Amino acids and sugars
● D=”deter”=right
, ● L=”laevus”=left (L form of sugars and Amino acids are more
common)
● Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry
● Two enantiomers of a drug may have different effects
◆ (s)-Thalidomide (teratogenic, caused birth defects) was a
sinister form of (R)-thalidomide which was used to treat
morning sickness in pregnant women
❖ BIG IDEA
➢ In Biology: the properties and function of a part is determined by its structure.
● This applies to the function of molecules and scaled up to
anatomical organs. Whole organisms and ecosystems.
❖ The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life
➢ Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most
commonly involved in chemical reactions
➢ The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique
properties
❖ Hydroxyl:
➢ Is polar as a result Attracts water molecules,
Of the electronegative helping dissolve oxygen
Oxygen atom drawing compounds such as sugars
Electrons toward itself.
❖ Carbonyl:
➢ Ketones if the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton
➢ Aldehydes if the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton
■ A ketone and an aldehyde may be structural isomers with different
properties as is the case for acetone and propanol
❖ Carboxyl:
➢ Name of compounds
■ Carboxylic acids or organic acids
➢ Functional Properties
■ Has acidic properties because it is a source of hydrogen ions
■ The covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar that
hydrogen ions (H+) tend to dissociate reversibly
,❖ Amino:
➢ Functional properties
■ Acts as a base; can pick up a proton from the surrounding solution
■ Ionized, with a charge of 1+ under cellular conditions
❖ Sulfhydryl:
➢ Thiols
➢ Functional properties
■ Two sulfhydryl groups can interact to help stabilize protein structure
❖ Phosphate:
➢ Organic phosphates
➢ Functional properties
■ Makes the molecule of which it is a part of an anion (negatively charged
ion)
■ Can transfer energy between organic molecules
❖ Methyl:
➢ Carbons with 3 hydrogens
■ Often not reactive with other compounds
■ used as a way of modifying the overall structure of a molecule
,❖ Macromolecules
➢ Most macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
■ A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks
called monomers
■ Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers:
● Carbohydrates
● Proteins
● Nucleic acids
❖ The synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
➢ Monomers from larger molecules by condensation reactions called dehydration
reactions (condensation reaction)
■ Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis
● A reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration
reaction
❖ Carbohydrates
➢ Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
➢ The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars
➢ Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides-
■ polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
➢ Serve as fuel and building material for organisms.
, ➢ Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O
■ (1 C 2H 1O)
➢ Monosaccharides are classified by location of the carbonyl group and by number
of carbons in the carbon skeleton
➢ Ring structure of sugars
■ Can have a linear and ring forms
■ Or they can fold back on themselves and form ring structures
Find where the integrated oxygen is within the ring and then you go around clockwise
❖ A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
➢ This covalent bond is called glycosidic linkage
❖ Polysaccharides
➢ Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
➢ The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar
monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages
➢ A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two
monosaccharides
■ Called a glycosidic linkage
(send message on site if you have any problems or questions cause I can provide lecture
videos my teacher recorded or I can provide lecture slides for certain topics that you struggle
with)
Macromolecules
❖ Although cells are 70-80% water, the rest consists mostly of carbon-based compounds
➢ Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse
molecules.
■ Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms
● In molecules with multiple carbons each carbon bonded to four
other atoms has a tetrahedral shape
● When two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the
molecule has a flat shape.
■ Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates and other molecules that distinguish living
matter are all composed of carbon compounds
■ Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules
● Carbon chains vary in length and shape
❖ Isomers
➢ Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures
and properties
■ Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms
■ Geometric isomers have the same covalent arrangements but differ in
spatial arrangements
➢ Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other.
■ There can be Enantiomers of Amino acids and sugars
● D=”deter”=right
, ● L=”laevus”=left (L form of sugars and Amino acids are more
common)
● Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry
● Two enantiomers of a drug may have different effects
◆ (s)-Thalidomide (teratogenic, caused birth defects) was a
sinister form of (R)-thalidomide which was used to treat
morning sickness in pregnant women
❖ BIG IDEA
➢ In Biology: the properties and function of a part is determined by its structure.
● This applies to the function of molecules and scaled up to
anatomical organs. Whole organisms and ecosystems.
❖ The Functional Groups Most Important in the Chemistry of Life
➢ Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most
commonly involved in chemical reactions
➢ The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique
properties
❖ Hydroxyl:
➢ Is polar as a result Attracts water molecules,
Of the electronegative helping dissolve oxygen
Oxygen atom drawing compounds such as sugars
Electrons toward itself.
❖ Carbonyl:
➢ Ketones if the carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton
➢ Aldehydes if the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton
■ A ketone and an aldehyde may be structural isomers with different
properties as is the case for acetone and propanol
❖ Carboxyl:
➢ Name of compounds
■ Carboxylic acids or organic acids
➢ Functional Properties
■ Has acidic properties because it is a source of hydrogen ions
■ The covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar that
hydrogen ions (H+) tend to dissociate reversibly
,❖ Amino:
➢ Functional properties
■ Acts as a base; can pick up a proton from the surrounding solution
■ Ionized, with a charge of 1+ under cellular conditions
❖ Sulfhydryl:
➢ Thiols
➢ Functional properties
■ Two sulfhydryl groups can interact to help stabilize protein structure
❖ Phosphate:
➢ Organic phosphates
➢ Functional properties
■ Makes the molecule of which it is a part of an anion (negatively charged
ion)
■ Can transfer energy between organic molecules
❖ Methyl:
➢ Carbons with 3 hydrogens
■ Often not reactive with other compounds
■ used as a way of modifying the overall structure of a molecule
,❖ Macromolecules
➢ Most macromolecules are polymers, built from monomers
■ A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar building blocks
called monomers
■ Three of the four classes of life’s organic molecules are polymers:
● Carbohydrates
● Proteins
● Nucleic acids
❖ The synthesis and Breakdown of Polymers
➢ Monomers from larger molecules by condensation reactions called dehydration
reactions (condensation reaction)
■ Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis
● A reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration
reaction
❖ Carbohydrates
➢ Carbohydrates include sugars and the polymers of sugars
➢ The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or single sugars
➢ Carbohydrate macromolecules are polysaccharides-
■ polymers composed of many sugar building blocks
➢ Serve as fuel and building material for organisms.
, ➢ Monosaccharides have molecular formulas that are usually multiples of CH2O
■ (1 C 2H 1O)
➢ Monosaccharides are classified by location of the carbonyl group and by number
of carbons in the carbon skeleton
➢ Ring structure of sugars
■ Can have a linear and ring forms
■ Or they can fold back on themselves and form ring structures
Find where the integrated oxygen is within the ring and then you go around clockwise
❖ A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two monosaccharides
➢ This covalent bond is called glycosidic linkage
❖ Polysaccharides
➢ Polysaccharides, the polymers of sugars, have storage and structural roles
➢ The structure and function of a polysaccharide are determined by its sugar
monomers and the positions of glycosidic linkages
➢ A disaccharide is formed when a dehydration reaction joins two
monosaccharides
■ Called a glycosidic linkage
