Comparative Politics and Democratization
https://v-dem.net : V-Dem provides a multidimensional and disaggregated dataset that reflects the complexity of
the concept of democracy as a system of rule that goes beyond the simple presence of elections.
https://freedomhouse.org : Freedom House is founded on the core conviction that freedom flourishes in democratic
nations where governments are accountable to their people. Freedom House works to defend human rights and
promote democratic change, with a focus on political rights and civil liberties. We act as a catalyst for freedom
through a combination of analysis, advocacy, and action. Our analysis, focused on 13 central issues, is underpinned
by our international program work. Browse our work and analysis by issue below.
https://www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.html : Polity Project, measuring Polity (Polity2, PolityIV…)
Metaphors for actors in IR
- Black Knights: A “dark character” who wants to take power. It refers to a state or actor that
behaves in a disruptive or obstructive manner within the international system, often opposing the
status quo or the efforts of dominant powers and coalitions. This actor does not necessarily act out
of malicious intent but follows its own interests, which may conflict with those of the leading states
or the international community.
- Trojan Horse: Describe a strategy where a state or actor introduces a seemingly harmless entity,
policy, or agreement into another state or group, which then becomes a vehicle for undermining or
attacking the recipient from within. This tactic is based on deceit, where the true intentions are
hidden until the damage is done. In international relations, this metaphor highlights the risks of
accepting offers or partnerships without fully understanding the hidden agendas or potential
consequences. Currently, there are 3 potential Trojan Horses in Europe: Hungary, Greece & Cyprus
Metaphors for events in IR
- Black Swan: refers to an unexpected, highly impactful event that was largely unpredictable
beforehand, but often rationalized with the benefit of hindsight. In the context of international
relations, Black Swan events can drastically alter the status quo, shift power balances, or change the
course of global affairs in unforeseen ways. Examples might include sudden political revolutions,
terrorist attacks, market crash, or the outbreak of a pandemic. These events challenge the
predictability and stability of the international system, highlighting the limitations of existing
models and theories to forecast such occurrences.
- White Rhinoceros: It symbolizes known but neglected issues that become critical due to inaction. It
reflects situations where clear dangers, like climate change or geopolitical conflicts, are
acknowledged but not adequately addressed until they reach a point of near crisis, mirroring the
white rhinoceros's path toward extinction despite widespread awareness of its plight. Ex: Russian
invasion of Ukraine.
1
, Part I: Introduction to Comparative Politics and Democratization
Session 1 - What is Comparative Politics? Introduction.
Introduction to the discipline
Who rules a democracy?
The majority, the people, the money, the elected officials, the lobbyists, the corporations…
Who rules in an authoritarian state?
The militaries, the dictator, the minority/the elite
Who rules the world?
The market, the rich people/global elites, the west, the international organizations (UN)
Elements of definitions of Politics
- Art of ruling: State-centred view; business and civil society organizations are in this sense regarded
as outside of politics
- Public affairs: narrow realm of government to what is thought of as public life
- Compromises and consensus: decision making, compromises, negotiations, conciliation, conflict
resolution
- Politics as power: politics takes place at every level of society, but at the end it is always about
power. “Politics is who gets what, when and how” Harold Lasswell
- A social activity
What is Political Science?
It arrived in Europe mostly after the 2WW to raise the political conscience and go towards a
democratization process. It deals with three main questions: WHO makes political decisions? WHAT
decisions are made? HOW are decisions made?
Nowadays, IR is a bit closer to Qualitative studies, but with new technologies, more and more datasets
appear to make Quantitative: Big Data.
*Small N: small number - qualitative
*Large N: large number - quantitative
Three main fields:
- Political Theories (normative and theoretical questions)
- Comparative Politics (empirical questions and interactions within countries)
2
, - International Relations (interactions between countries)
(But also: National policies, Public Policy, Public administration, Public Law, Constitutional Law)
What is a State?
Territories/borders, laws, institutions, political unit, abstract concept.
The government and the bureaucracy represent it.
Weber defined the state as “modus operandi”
“A compulsory political organization with continues operations will be called a “state” insofar as it’s a…”
- Set of institutions with dedicated personnel
- Exercising a monopoly of authoritative rulemaking within a bounded territory
- Monopoly of legitim violence
- Territory represents physical aspect of the state, supposed to be able to defend it
- Sovereignty: sole judge of its own interests, recognizes no power superior to itself, accepts no
interferences from others in its own domestic affairs, …
- Plurality
(!) Difference between Government, Regime, and State (Less institutionalized more institutionalized).
Government may come and go, while regime and states usually have more staying power.
*Holistic: characterized by the belief that the parts of something are interconnected and can be explained
only by reference to the whole.
What is Comparative Politics?
CP deals with interactions within political systems: elections, Party Systems, Political Systems, Institutions,
Actors, Processes, Policies, Executive-Legislative Relations, Interest Groups, Legislatures…
IR deals with interactions outside of the country: Conflicts, Foreign Policy, International Organizations
Common: Revolutions, Political Economy, Environment Policy
Origins of CP
The field of Comparative Politics has evolved through distinct phases from the late 19th century to the
present, each marked by changes in focus, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies:
1. Early Formative Period (1880-1920): This era concentrated on the analysis of government and
formal state institutions with a narrow focus. Theoretical approaches were both theoretical and
descriptive, relying heavily on detailed descriptions without much emphasis on systematic
comparison.
2. Behavioral Revolution (1921-1966): A shift towards informal politics and political behavior,
including interest groups, political parties, and political culture. This period emphasized systematic
theory building, empirical testing, and structural-functionalism. Methodologies expanded to include
case studies, small-N comparisons, and large-N statistics, reflecting a more scientific approach.
3. Post-Behavioral Period (1967-1988): There was a renewed interest in state and formal political
institutions, focusing on state formation, political order and change, social movements,
3
, democratization, varieties of authoritarianism, and models of economic development. Theoretical
work aimed at developing mid-range theories, and methodologies included case studies,
comparisons, large-N statistics, and long-term historical analyses.
4. Contemporary Period (1989-Present): This period sees a wide range of topics, including both
formal and informal politics, state collapse, civil and ethnic conflict. The influence of Rational Choice
Theory and the Second Scientific Revolution have been significant, leading to the use of formal
modeling, advanced statistics, and qualitative methods in a tripartite methodology approach.
Goal of CP
1. Describe similarities and differences and build classifications and typologies, e.g. types of electoral
systems, democracies, party systems
2. Explain similarities and differences by formulating and testing hypotheses; e.g. USA vs. EU in financial
crisis (Keynesian vs. austerity)
3. Predict; e.g. PR system with multiple districts favors regional concentration of vote. Consequences for
Spain?
Research method depends on research questions, which determine the study.
Two ways of comparing in a paper: comparing cases with different settings aside of one in common which
led to a common result / comparing cases with same setting aside of one different which led to different
results.
A Couple of Major Thinkers
Aristotle, Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes (Leviatan), John Locke, Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de
Montesquieu, J-J Rousseau, Karl Marx, Max Weber.
It is hard to find some current big thinkers in the field).
Aristoteles (350BC) is the first thinker to talk about politics, State, models of politics: Politics as a “master
science”.
“Democracy is a corrupt form of political regime. The best ‘polity’, rule of many for the intrest of all. “…man
is by nature a political animal”
At the contrary, Polity is the rule of many, for the interest of all. He classified the Political Systems. For him,
the best one was Polity.
4
https://v-dem.net : V-Dem provides a multidimensional and disaggregated dataset that reflects the complexity of
the concept of democracy as a system of rule that goes beyond the simple presence of elections.
https://freedomhouse.org : Freedom House is founded on the core conviction that freedom flourishes in democratic
nations where governments are accountable to their people. Freedom House works to defend human rights and
promote democratic change, with a focus on political rights and civil liberties. We act as a catalyst for freedom
through a combination of analysis, advocacy, and action. Our analysis, focused on 13 central issues, is underpinned
by our international program work. Browse our work and analysis by issue below.
https://www.systemicpeace.org/polityproject.html : Polity Project, measuring Polity (Polity2, PolityIV…)
Metaphors for actors in IR
- Black Knights: A “dark character” who wants to take power. It refers to a state or actor that
behaves in a disruptive or obstructive manner within the international system, often opposing the
status quo or the efforts of dominant powers and coalitions. This actor does not necessarily act out
of malicious intent but follows its own interests, which may conflict with those of the leading states
or the international community.
- Trojan Horse: Describe a strategy where a state or actor introduces a seemingly harmless entity,
policy, or agreement into another state or group, which then becomes a vehicle for undermining or
attacking the recipient from within. This tactic is based on deceit, where the true intentions are
hidden until the damage is done. In international relations, this metaphor highlights the risks of
accepting offers or partnerships without fully understanding the hidden agendas or potential
consequences. Currently, there are 3 potential Trojan Horses in Europe: Hungary, Greece & Cyprus
Metaphors for events in IR
- Black Swan: refers to an unexpected, highly impactful event that was largely unpredictable
beforehand, but often rationalized with the benefit of hindsight. In the context of international
relations, Black Swan events can drastically alter the status quo, shift power balances, or change the
course of global affairs in unforeseen ways. Examples might include sudden political revolutions,
terrorist attacks, market crash, or the outbreak of a pandemic. These events challenge the
predictability and stability of the international system, highlighting the limitations of existing
models and theories to forecast such occurrences.
- White Rhinoceros: It symbolizes known but neglected issues that become critical due to inaction. It
reflects situations where clear dangers, like climate change or geopolitical conflicts, are
acknowledged but not adequately addressed until they reach a point of near crisis, mirroring the
white rhinoceros's path toward extinction despite widespread awareness of its plight. Ex: Russian
invasion of Ukraine.
1
, Part I: Introduction to Comparative Politics and Democratization
Session 1 - What is Comparative Politics? Introduction.
Introduction to the discipline
Who rules a democracy?
The majority, the people, the money, the elected officials, the lobbyists, the corporations…
Who rules in an authoritarian state?
The militaries, the dictator, the minority/the elite
Who rules the world?
The market, the rich people/global elites, the west, the international organizations (UN)
Elements of definitions of Politics
- Art of ruling: State-centred view; business and civil society organizations are in this sense regarded
as outside of politics
- Public affairs: narrow realm of government to what is thought of as public life
- Compromises and consensus: decision making, compromises, negotiations, conciliation, conflict
resolution
- Politics as power: politics takes place at every level of society, but at the end it is always about
power. “Politics is who gets what, when and how” Harold Lasswell
- A social activity
What is Political Science?
It arrived in Europe mostly after the 2WW to raise the political conscience and go towards a
democratization process. It deals with three main questions: WHO makes political decisions? WHAT
decisions are made? HOW are decisions made?
Nowadays, IR is a bit closer to Qualitative studies, but with new technologies, more and more datasets
appear to make Quantitative: Big Data.
*Small N: small number - qualitative
*Large N: large number - quantitative
Three main fields:
- Political Theories (normative and theoretical questions)
- Comparative Politics (empirical questions and interactions within countries)
2
, - International Relations (interactions between countries)
(But also: National policies, Public Policy, Public administration, Public Law, Constitutional Law)
What is a State?
Territories/borders, laws, institutions, political unit, abstract concept.
The government and the bureaucracy represent it.
Weber defined the state as “modus operandi”
“A compulsory political organization with continues operations will be called a “state” insofar as it’s a…”
- Set of institutions with dedicated personnel
- Exercising a monopoly of authoritative rulemaking within a bounded territory
- Monopoly of legitim violence
- Territory represents physical aspect of the state, supposed to be able to defend it
- Sovereignty: sole judge of its own interests, recognizes no power superior to itself, accepts no
interferences from others in its own domestic affairs, …
- Plurality
(!) Difference between Government, Regime, and State (Less institutionalized more institutionalized).
Government may come and go, while regime and states usually have more staying power.
*Holistic: characterized by the belief that the parts of something are interconnected and can be explained
only by reference to the whole.
What is Comparative Politics?
CP deals with interactions within political systems: elections, Party Systems, Political Systems, Institutions,
Actors, Processes, Policies, Executive-Legislative Relations, Interest Groups, Legislatures…
IR deals with interactions outside of the country: Conflicts, Foreign Policy, International Organizations
Common: Revolutions, Political Economy, Environment Policy
Origins of CP
The field of Comparative Politics has evolved through distinct phases from the late 19th century to the
present, each marked by changes in focus, theoretical frameworks, and methodologies:
1. Early Formative Period (1880-1920): This era concentrated on the analysis of government and
formal state institutions with a narrow focus. Theoretical approaches were both theoretical and
descriptive, relying heavily on detailed descriptions without much emphasis on systematic
comparison.
2. Behavioral Revolution (1921-1966): A shift towards informal politics and political behavior,
including interest groups, political parties, and political culture. This period emphasized systematic
theory building, empirical testing, and structural-functionalism. Methodologies expanded to include
case studies, small-N comparisons, and large-N statistics, reflecting a more scientific approach.
3. Post-Behavioral Period (1967-1988): There was a renewed interest in state and formal political
institutions, focusing on state formation, political order and change, social movements,
3
, democratization, varieties of authoritarianism, and models of economic development. Theoretical
work aimed at developing mid-range theories, and methodologies included case studies,
comparisons, large-N statistics, and long-term historical analyses.
4. Contemporary Period (1989-Present): This period sees a wide range of topics, including both
formal and informal politics, state collapse, civil and ethnic conflict. The influence of Rational Choice
Theory and the Second Scientific Revolution have been significant, leading to the use of formal
modeling, advanced statistics, and qualitative methods in a tripartite methodology approach.
Goal of CP
1. Describe similarities and differences and build classifications and typologies, e.g. types of electoral
systems, democracies, party systems
2. Explain similarities and differences by formulating and testing hypotheses; e.g. USA vs. EU in financial
crisis (Keynesian vs. austerity)
3. Predict; e.g. PR system with multiple districts favors regional concentration of vote. Consequences for
Spain?
Research method depends on research questions, which determine the study.
Two ways of comparing in a paper: comparing cases with different settings aside of one in common which
led to a common result / comparing cases with same setting aside of one different which led to different
results.
A Couple of Major Thinkers
Aristotle, Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes (Leviatan), John Locke, Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de
Montesquieu, J-J Rousseau, Karl Marx, Max Weber.
It is hard to find some current big thinkers in the field).
Aristoteles (350BC) is the first thinker to talk about politics, State, models of politics: Politics as a “master
science”.
“Democracy is a corrupt form of political regime. The best ‘polity’, rule of many for the intrest of all. “…man
is by nature a political animal”
At the contrary, Polity is the rule of many, for the interest of all. He classified the Political Systems. For him,
the best one was Polity.
4
