Bird and Bat Collision Risks & Wind Energy Facilities

Bird and Bat Collision Risks & Wind Energy Facilities Julia Willmott E. Allison Costello Caleb Gordon Greg Forcey Sean Casto Genevieve Beaulac Ernani Pilla Inter-American Development Bank 2012 The opinions expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Inter-American Development Bank, its Board of Directors, or the countries they represent. The unauthorized commercial use of Bank documents is prohibited and may be punishable under the Bank's policies and/or applicable laws. Copyright © Inter-American Development Bank. All rights reserved; may be freely reproduced for any non-commercial purpose. 2012 Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012 iii Preface Over the past few years, the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) has seen its portfolio of wind power projects increase substantially, and this trend is expected to continue. This report is intended to provide expert guidance to the IDB regarding windwildlife risk issues, and to ensure that environmental impact considerations are sufficiently incorporated into IDB’s wind energy projects. Guidance is provided in 3 specific areas, corresponding to the 3 chapters of this report, as follows: Efficacy of bird and bat impact minimization/mitigation measures (Chapter 1). This chapter is intended as a review of the effectiveness of various measures that have been implemented at wind energy facilities to reduce wildlife fatalities. The emphasis of this chapter is on synthesizing empirical evidence supporting the effectiveness of the different measures, and the applicability of each measure to IDB’s wind energy projects. This chapter was prepared by Julia Willmott (birds), E. Allison Costello (bats), and Caleb Gordon. Efficacy of preconstruction collision risk prediction models (Chapter 2). This chapter is intended as an evaluation of the value of preconstruction collision risk modeling, as a tool to predict bird and/or bat fatality rates at wind energy facilities prior to construction. The emphasis of this chapter is on empirical support for the prediction accuracy of existing models, as demonstrated by validation studies in which preconstruction predicted fatality rates are compared with observed postconstruction fatality rates. This chapter was prepared by Greg Forcey and Caleb Gordon, with input from a variety of wind-wildlife modeling experts who responded to a wind-wildlife collision risk modeling accuracy survey questionnaire developed for this review. Postconstruction fatality monitoring protocols for birds and bats (Chapter 3). This chapter is intended to provide a standardized protocol and methodology for the monitoring of bird and bat fatalities of wind energy projects in operation. Essential considerations in developing this protocol include scientific validity, robustness, and comparability of data across projects, and also feasibility for application to IDB’s wind energy projects. This chapter was prepared by Caleb Gordon and Sean Casto, with helpful discussion and commentary on an earlier draft provided by Drs. Amanda Hale and Victoria Bennett of Texas Christian University. Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012 iv Contents Preface ......................................................................................................................................... iii List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... vi Acronyms and Abbreviations ................................................................................................. vii 1 Effectiveness of Mitigation Measures for Reducing Direct Mortality of Birds and Bats at Wind Energy Facilities, and Recommendations for Application to Latin America .......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Curtailment of Wind Turbine Operation ............................................................................. 1 1.2.1 Birds ............................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2.2 Bats ................................................................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Lighting Regimes ...................................................................................................................... 7 1.3.1 Birds ............................................................................................................................................... 7 1.3.2 Bats ................................................................................................................................................. 8 1.4 Ultrasonic and Audible Deterrents ....................................................................................... 9 1.4.1 Birds ............................................................................................................................................... 9 1.4.2 Bats ................................................................................................................................................. 9 1.5 Blade Painting ......................................................................................................................... 12 1.5.1 Birds ............................................................................................................................................. 12 1.5.2 Bats ............................................................................................................................................... 13 1.6 Anti-perching Structures and Turbine Design ................................................................. 13 1.6.1 Birds ............................................................................................................................................. 13 1.6.2 Bats ............................................................................................................................................... 14 2 Accuracy of Preconstruction Collision Risk Model Predictions for Birds and Bats with Wind Turbines: A Review of Existing Evidence and Consideration of Applicability to Latin America ........................................................................................................................ 16 2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 16 2.2 Methods .................................................................................................................................... 17 2.3 Review of Existing Risk Models .......................................................................................... 18 2.3.1 Tucker Model .............................................................................................................................. 18 2.3.2 Band et al. Model ........................................................................................................................ 21 2.3.3 Podolsky Model .......................................................................................................................... 23 Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012 v 2.3.4 Bolker Model ............................................................................................................................... 25 2.3.5 Warren-Hicks et al. Model ........................................................................................................ 27 2.3.6 Biosis Collision Model ............................................................................................................... 29 2.3.7 Eichhorn et al. 2012 .................................................................................................................... 31 2.3.8 U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Collision Model ..................................................................... 33 2.3.9 Normandeau Spatial Collision Risk Assessment Model (SCRAM) .................................... 35 2.3.10 Normandeau Spatial Landscape Collision Model ................................................................. 37 2.3.11 Other Models .............................................................................................................................. 39 2.4 Collision Model Validation .................................................................................................. 49 2.4.1 Fatality Rate Validation ............................................................................................................. 49 2.4.2 Avoidance Rate Validation ....................................................................................................... 50 2.4.3 Discussion.................................................................................................................................... 50 2.5 Recommendations for Application to Latin America ...................................................... 51 3 Postconstruction Wildlife Fatality Monitoring Protocols: A Review of Existing Methodologies and a Proposed Protocol for Latin American Wind Energy Facilities .. 53 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 53 3.2 Synthesis of Literature on Postconstruction Fatality Monitoring Methodologies for Birds and Bats ............................................................................................... 54 3.2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 54 3.2.2 Elements of Postconstruction Fatality Monitoring Protocols for Birds and Bats .............. 62 3.3 Postconstruction Fatality Monitoring Protocol for Birds and Bats in Latin American Wind Energy Projects .................................................................................................. 76 3.3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 76 3.3.2 Protocol Summary ...................................................................................................................... 77 3.3.3 Protocol ........................................................................................................................................ 80 4 Suggested Future Research: Empirical Characterization of Migratory Raptor-Wind Turbine Collision Impacts in the Great Central American Raptor Migration Corridor 88 4.1 Rationale. The Potential Risk of Migrating Raptors Colliding with Wind Turbines Stands as the Single Most Important Wind-Wildlife Risk Issue in Latin America, for the Following Reasons: .......................................................................................... 88 4.2 Objectives ................................................................................................................................. 90 4.3 Proposed Research Study Design ........................................................................................ 90 4.4 Budget .................................................................................................................................... 93 Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012 vi 4.5 Outcomes .................................................................................................................................. 94 5 Literature Cited .................................................................................................................. 95 APPENDIX 1: Survey questionnaire distributing to wind-wildlife collision risk modeling experts regarding validation studies and prediction accuracy of preconstruction wind-wildlife collision risk models ......................................................... 110 List of Tables Table 2–1. Collision Modeling Experts that Responded to a Written Questionnaire Regarding Wind-wildlife Collision Risk Model Accuracy and Validation Studies. ...................................................................... 18 Table 2–2. Comparative Overview of Key Advantages, Disadvantages, and Applicability of Wind-wildlife Collision Risk Models. .................................. 40 Table 2–3. Summary of the Structure and Components of Wind-wildlife Collision Risk Models .......................................................................................... 45 Table 3–1. Avian and Bat Postconstruction Monitoring Requirements or Recommendations from Various Regulatory Agencies (NS = not specified). ............................................................................................................... 57 Table 3–2. Visibility Classes at Postconstruction Turbine Locations* ............................. 67 Table 3–3. Summary of Recommended Postconstruction Fatality Monitoring Protocol for Birds and Bats for IDB Category A and B Wind Energy Development Projects in Latin America ........................................................... 79 Table 3–4. Visibility Classes of Searching Substrates below Wind Turbines. ................ 81 Table 4–1. Percentage of total migratory passage included within the October and April sampling seasons for the suggested research project, for the 4 Nearctic-Neotropical migrant raptor species that collectively comprise the bulk of the raptor migration through the Central American migratory raptor corridor (data sources: , ) ............................................................ 92 Table 4–2. Summary budget for suggested research project on the collision susceptibility of migrating raptors and other birds and bats in the Central American migration corridor. .............................................................. 93 Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012 vii Acronyms and Abbreviations APWRA Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area BACI before-after control-impact CEC California Energy Commission FAA Federal Aviation Administration IDB Inter-American Development Bank MMO Marine Management Organization MDB multilateral development bank NAS National Academy of Science NWCC National Wind Coordinating Collaborative NYDEC New York Department of Environmental Conservation ODNR Ohio Department of Natural Resources OMNR Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources PGC Pennsylvania Game Commission PWEA Polish Wind Energy Association SCRAM spatial collision risk assessment model USFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Normandeau Associates, Inc. 2012 1 1 Effectiveness of Mitigation Measures for Reducing Direct Mortality of Birds and Bats at Wind Energy Facilities, and Recommendations for Application to Latin America 1.1 Introduction Both birds and bats are known to have fatal collisions (or near collisions) with turbines at wind energy facilities. Bird collision rates are typically very low, an average of 2.96 birds/MW/year in the U.S. (NAS 2007), although under some circumstances for some bird taxa, higher rates or collision patterns of conservation concern are possible. Collision rates for certain bat taxa are known to exceed normal bird collision rates, in some regions outnumbering bird fatalities 10 to 1 (Barclay et al. 2007). Ever since wildlife collision risk was identified as an issue at wind energy facilities, measures to reduce, avoid, and mitigate these impacts have been sought. Solutions are typically driven by understanding of the factors that contribute to the susceptibility of particular bird and bat taxa to collision mortality. The focus of this chapter is to evaluate the effectiveness of bird and bat collision mitigation measures that are currently available, and to assess their effectiveness for application to Latin American wind energy facilities. The emphasis of this evaluation is on empirical support for the effectiveness of various measures, as opposed to purely hypothetical or unsubstantiated effectiveness. 1.2 Curtailment of Wind Turbine Operation 1.2.1 Birds Bird collision mortalities at wind farms are typically very low (see section 1.1), hence the curtailment of wind turbine operation to reduce bird collision mortality has not been widely recommended, tested, or implemented worldwide. As with bats, bird collision mortality problems are highly species-specific (NAS 2007), and can typically only be reliably identified with post-construction mortality monitoring (Ferrer et al. 2012). In several specific cases where potentially significant bird collision mortalities have been detected or predicted at wind energy facilities, various operational curtailment strategies have been implemented as a means of reducing bird collision mortality. Such cases include the La Venta II facility in Oaxaca, Mexico, several wind facilities along the Gulf of Mexico coast in Texas, the Altamont Pass wind energy facility in California, the El Zayt Gulf facility in Egypt, and various facilities in Spain. Of these, data that can be used to assess the effectiveness of the operational curtailment are only available for Spain and California.