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COGNITION: REASONING
Reasoning: a process of goal-directed thinking that draws conclusions from a set of facts.
Quality of reasoning depends on the suitability or relevance of the reasons we present to
support our view.
Two structures in reasoning: premise ...
Reasoning: a process of goal-directed thinking that draws conclusions from a set of facts.
Quality of reasoning depends on the suitability or relevance of the reasons we present to
support our view.
Two structures in reasoning: premise and conclusions
Premise: statement from which the conclusion is inferred.
Premise provides the evidence that supports your conclusion.
Reasoning based on formal rules of logic
• Deductive reasoning: drawing a conclusion that follows logically from 2 or
more statements or premises. If the premises are true, then the conclusion is
true.
• Inductive reasoning: Using available evidence to generate a conclusion about
the likelihood of something. Conclusion is based on the premise, but the
premise does not guarantee the conclusion. Premise only provides some
support for the likelihood of the conclusion. Used when we form analogies or
comparisons. (Assumptions)
• Analogical reasoning: when you infer patterns or relations between things,
for example,
left is to right as up is to down.
Differences between formal and informal reasoning:
• FORMAL INFORMAL
Premises are stated explicitly. Premises are more implied than implicit.
The problem that is being reasoned about is
(generally) not personally relevant.
Personal consequences for every-day life.
(leads to weaknesses in reasoning)
Structures and rules are obvious. Structures and rules are less obvious.
,Usually only 1 correct solution. Generally several possible solutions.
Fallacies: Conclusions are sometimes based on fallacies or misleading arguments.
Fallacies use irrelevant premises to support a conclusion, as if those premises are relevant.
Different types of fallacies:
• Playing on someone's sympathy to get something done.
• Trying to discredit an issue by discrediting the person who supports it.
• Relying on the characteristics of a certain group in order to gain support for a particular
conclusion.
• Using a false analogy.
• Using a slightly changed version of someone else's point of view as a basis for your
reasoning.
Critical reasoning: Thinking critically about the information that you have and looking at all
the options and various explanations.
Steps to improve critical reasoning ability:
• Identify the problem (acknowledge and define)
• Keep an open mind (avoid seeing things as extremes, try middle ground)
• Remember the difference between language and reality.
• Use open ended questions.
• Avoid over-generalizations.
• Be empathetic.
• Obtain relevant information.
• Use informal knowledge
• Develop collective thinking.
COGNITION: THINKING
Thinking: a complex process of transforming available information to form new
representations. Through thinking we process the symbolic representations of things.
Three main symbol systems used in thinking:
1. Images: symbolic representations of objects and their characteristics.
, 2. Concepts: The categories we form as mental representations of groups of
related items. Also abstracts.
1. Hierarchical organisation of concepts: A conceptual hierarchy is made up
of at least 3 levels: a superordinate (top) level; intermediate level;
subordinate level. Things that have common attributes fall on the same
level.
2. Conceptual rules: used to decide whether or not something belongs to a
certain concept.
1. Denotative meaning: Formal conceptual hierarchies are based on
exact definitions or agreements about attributes in an objective sense.
2. Connotative meaning: personal meanings of concepts.
3. Conceptual errors: one dimensional thought = stereotyping; all-or-nothing thought =
wrong.
4. Prototypes: ideal models of concepts. Helps to identify things efficiently.
5.
3. Language: A system of symbols to represent thoughts.
1. Inner speech: or implicit speech
2. Language & thought: not identical.
EMOTION
Emotion: Type of feeling, linked to the meaning of a particular situation.
An emotion may move us to do something.
Emotion: combination of physiological arousal combined with perceptual-cognitive
processes (thinking and subjective experience), and observable behavioural expressions.
COMPONENTS OF EMOTION:
1. PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENT:
◦ Physiological arousal associated with emotions occurs through the actions of
the autonomic nervous system, which regulates the activity of glands, smooth muscles
and blood vessels.
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