BIOS 251 A&P 1 Final Study Guide 100% Recommended

1 BIOS 251 A&P 1 Final Study Guide *Spend extra time on the concepts that are in bold* Don’t forget to study the list of bones and bone features on the Lab Practicum Study Guide! Ch. 1 Homeostasis • Condition of equilibrium in the body’s internal environment, and maintained by regulatory processes. • Survival of our body cells is dependent on the precise regulation of the chemical composition of their surrounding fluid • Internal conditions are in a dynamic equilibrium; set point (like thermostat in house) • Essential for maintenance of life; death and disease. Components of the homeostatic control loop (feedback loops) • Negative Feedback: works to oppose change and brings condition back to a set point o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (blood pressure) > Receptors (baroreceptors in certain blood vessels) > Control Center (brain) > Effectors (heart & blood vessels) > Response (decrease in HR) • Positive Feedback: works to enhance change and brings condition further away from a set point (ex. Birth) o Stimulus > Controlled Condition (stretching of cervix) > Receptors (stretching of cells in cervix) > Control Center (brain) > Effectors (muscles in wall of uterus) > Response (baby’s body stretches the cervix more) Ch. 2 Acids and bases • Acids: ionize into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) and one or more anions (negative ions) • Bases: dissociate into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-) and one or more cations (positive ions) and are proton acceptors. pH scale • Acidity is lower, alkalinity is higher. Scale is 0-14 • 7 is neutral • Gastric fluid, hydrochloric acid is 0 and 1 • Over cleaner, sodium hydroxide is 13 and 14 • Blood is just over 7 Ch. 3 Tonicity of solutions and their effect on body cells (hypo-, iso-, hypertonic) • Tonicity of a solution relates to how the solution influences the shape of body cells. • Isotonic solution = RBC maintain normal shape • Hypotonic solution = RBC hemolyze • Hypertonic solution = RBC crenate2 Osmosis • Net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration. Factors that influence the rate of diffusion across the cell membrane • steepness of the concentration gradient • temperature • mass of diffusing substance • surface area • diffusion distance Where DNA may be found in the cell • Nucleus • Sometimes in the mitochondria Where DNA replication occurs in the cell • Nucleus Stages of the cell cycle and events at each stage • Interphase (longest phase) o G1 § Cell is metabolically active, duplicating organelles, and cytosolic components except for DNA. 8-10 hours. o S § DNA replicated. 8 hours o G2. 4-6 hours. § Cell growth continues and the cell completes its preparation for cell division • Mitosis – nuclear division; distribution of two sets of chromosomes, one set into each of two separate nuclei o PMAT Stages of mitosis and events at each stage • Prophase: chromatin condenses and shortens into chromosomes • Metaphase: centromeres line up at the exact center of mitotic spindle, aka metaphase plate or equatorial plane region • Anaphase: the splitting and separation of centromeres and the movement of the two sister chromatids of each pair toward opposite poles of the cell • Telophase: begins as soon as chromatid movement stops. Identical sets of chromosomes at opposite poles of the cell uncoil and revert to their threadlike chromatin form, microtubules disappear or change form, a new nuclear envelope forms, new nucleoli appear, and the new mitotic spindle eventually breaks. Ch. 43 Modes of exocrine gland secretions (mero-, apo- and holocrine) • Merocrine: form secretory products and discharge it by exocytosis • Apocrine: secretary product at apical surface of secreting cell. Portion pinches off from the rest of the cell to form secretion within remaining part of cell repairing itself and repeating the process. • Holocrine: secretory product in the cytosol, cell dies, cell replaced with new one. 4 main types of tissues in the body and their subtypes • Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands. o Simple Squamous o Simple Cuboidal o Simple Columnar o Pseudostratified o Stratified Squamous o Stratified Cuboidal o Stratified Columnar o Transitional • Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as fat, and provides immunity. o Loose connective tissue o Areolar Connective Tissue o Adipose Connective Tissue o Reticular Connective Tissue o Dense Regular Connective Tissue o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue o Elastic Connective Tissue o Bone o Cartilage § Hyaline Cartilage § Fibrocartilage § Elastic Cartilage • Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production. o Skeletal Muscle o Cardiac Muscle o Smooth Muscle • Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities o Neurons o Neuroglia Basic characteristics of each of the tissues (ECM, cells), their subtypes and locations in the body • Epithelial tissue: covers body surface, lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, forms glands. o Simple Squamous: single, flat layer of cells. Diffusion and filtration. Found in lungs and kidneys. o Simple Cuboidal: single, cube like layer of cells. Secretion and absorption o Simple Columnar: single, rectangular shape layer of cells o Pseudostratified: one layer looks like multiple. Sweep away mucous.4 o Stratified Squamous: multiple, flat cells. Skin o Stratified Cuboidal: multiple, cube layers. Protective. o Stratified Columnar: multiple, columns. Protection, Secretion. o Transitional: several layers that stretch. Bladder and ureters. • Connective tissue: protects and supports the body and its organs, binds organs together, stores energy reserved as fat, and provides immunity. o Loose connective tissue: all 3 fibers, several types of cells, and semifluid ground substance. o Areolar Connective Tissue: aids passage of nutrients from the blood vessels of the connective tissue into adjacent cells and tissues. o Adipose Connective Tissue: consists of adipocytes specialized for storage of triglycerides. Reduces heat loss, energy storage, supports, protects. o Reticular Connective Tissue: fine interlacing reticular fibers and reticular cells. Stroma of certain cells, helps bind together the cells of smooth muscle. o Dense Regular Connective Tissue: consists of bundles of collagen fibers in a regular and orderly, parallel arrangement that confers great strength. o Dense Irregular Connective Tissue: contains collagen fibers that are irregularly arranged and found in parts of the body where tensions are exerted in various directions. o Elastic Connective Tissue: elastic fibers and fibroblasts, quite strong, recoil back to its original shape. Found in lung tissue and elastic arteries. o Bone: consists of a matrix containing mineral salts and collagenous fibers and cells called osteocytes. o Cartilage: dense network of collagen fibers and elastic fibers. § Hyaline Cartilage: most abundant but weakest type. Flexible and supportive at joints, reduces friction and absorbs shock. § Fibrocartilage: bundles of collagen fibers. Strength and rigidity, strongest of 3 types. § Elastic Cartilage: strength and elasticity, maintains shape of certain organs. • Muscle tissue: responsible for movement and generation of force, and heat production. o Skeletal Muscle: attached to bones, striated, voluntary o Cardiac Muscle: forms heart wall, striated, involuntary o Smooth Muscle: found in hollow internal structures (blood vessels and viscera,) nonstriated, involuntary • Nervous tissue: initiates and transmits action potentials (nerve impulse) that help coordinate body activities o Neurons: consist of body, dendrites, axons. Sensitive to stimuli, convert stimuli into nerve impulses, and conduct nerve impulses to other neurons, muscle fibers, or glands. o Neuroglia: protect and support neurons and often sites of tumors of the nervous system Ch. 5 Functions of the skin • Physcial barriers to microorganisms, chemical hazards, mechanical abrasion • Prevents dehydration • Protects against excess UV exposure (melanin function) • Thermoregulation • Excretion of sweat, oil • Sensation of touch, pressure, pain, temp. • Vitamin D3 production5 Strata/layers of the epidermis and functions (recognize in pictures/histology slides) • Stratum basale / stratum gerinativum: mitotically active, attached to basal lamina. Deepest layer. • Stratum Spinosum (spiny layer): cells arranged in 8 to 10 layers with desomosomes that pull cells into spiny shapes. Strength and flexibility to the skin. • Stratum granulosum (granular layer) : cells arranged in two to four layers and filled with keratohyalin granules for dehydration and cross linking of keratin • Stratum Lucidum (clear layer): cells filled with keratin, absent in thin skin [only present in thick skin] [only in fingers, palms, soles] • Stratum Corneum (horny later): most superficial layer; dead cells filled with keratin • Cell types of the epidermis • Keratinocytes: produce keratin, helps protect the skin and underlying tissue from heat, microbes, and chemicals, and lamellar granules, which release a waterproof sealant. • Melanocytes: produce the pigment melanin which contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging UV light • Intraepidermal Macrophages or Langerhans: cells participate in immune response • Tactile epithelial cells or Merkel cells: contact a sensory structure called a tactile (Merkel) disc and function in the sensation of touch. Melanocyte and melanin function • Melanocyte – produce the pigment melanin which contributes to skin color and absorbs damaging UV light. Synthesize melanin from amino acid tyrosine in the presence of an enzyme called tyrosinase. • Melanin – causes skins color to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to black o Pheomelanin (yellow to red) o Eumelanin (brown to black) Thick vs thin skin • Thick skin – covers the palms, palmer surfaces of the digits, and soles6 o Features a stratum lucidum and thick epidermal ridges o Lacks hair follicles, arrector pili muscles, and sebaceous glands, and has more sweat glands than thin skin • Thin skin – covers all parts of the body except for the palms, palmar surface of the digits, and soles o Lacks epidermal ridges o Has a sparser distribution of sensory receptors than thick skin Keratin • Helps protect the skin and underlying tissue from heat, microbes, and chemicals, and lamellar granules, which release a waterproof sealant. ABCDE’s of skin cancer • A – Asymmetry • B – Border (eneven) • C – Color (variety) • D – Diameter (> ¼ “) • E – Evolving (changes over time) Types of skin cancer • Basal cell carcinoma (common) • Squamous cell carcinoma • Malignant melanoma (most dangerous) Ch. 6 Functions of the skeletal system • Provides support • Protects the internal organs (brains, heart, etc) • Assists body movements (in conjunction with muscles) • Stores and releases salts of calcium and phosphorus • Participates in blood cell production (hemopoiesis) • Stores triglycerides in adipose cells of yellow marrow Microscopic structure of compact and spongy bone • Compact bone: located where bones are heavily stressed; unidirectional • Spongy bone: located where bones are not heavily stressed; multidirectional o Reduces the weight of the bone o Provides framework for bone marrow Cells of bone tissue and their functions • Osteogenic cells: undergo cell division and develop into osteoblasts • Osteoblasts: bone building cells, promoting bone deposition • Osteocytes: mature bone cells (derived from osteoblasts) that maintain bone tissue.7 • Osteoclasts: derived from monocytes and serve to break down, or resorb, bone tissue. Parts of a typical long bone • Diaphysis (bone shaft) • 2 epiphyses (both ends of the bone at the joints) • 2 metaphyses (region between diaphysis and epiphysis) • Articular cartilage covering both epiphyses • Periosteum (connective tissue surrounding the diaphysis) • Medullary cavity (hollow space within diaphysis) • Endosteum (thin membrane lining the medullary cavity) Hormones affecting bone remodeling • Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), which are stimulated by human growth hormone (hGH) • Thyroid hormones and insulin are also necessary. • Sex hormones (estrogen and testosterone) at puberty stimulates sudden growth. • Hormonal abnormalities can affect growth in height. Calcium homeostasis in bone (hormones!) • Store 99% of body’s calcium • Parathyroid gland secretes Parathyroid hormone (PTH) when Ca levels drop • Osteoclasts are stimulated to increase bone resportion and calcium is released • PTH also stimulates the production of calcitriol by the kidneys to increase calcium absorption in the intestines. • Calcitonin made by the thyroid works to reduce calcium blood levels Main minerals found in bone matrix • Calcium and phosphorus Ch. 7 Types of ribs • True Ribs (pairs 1-7) – cartilage is directly connected to the sternum • Falso Ribs (pairs 8-12) – cartilage indirectly connected to sternum o Floating Ribs (pairs 11 and 12) – not connected at all Types of bones (shapes) and examples of each • Long: greater seed length than width – humerus • Short: cube shaped – trapezoid, wrist bones • Flat: thin layers of parallel plates – sternum • Irregular : complex shapes – vertebraes • Sesamoid: shaped like a seasame seed - patella Abnormal curvatures of the vertebral column • Scoliosis : increased lateral curve (S curve)8 • Kyphosis: increased thoracic curve-bent forward (hump back) • Lordosis: increased lumbar curve-bent backwards (low back inward) Location and functions of 3 smallest bones in your body (auditory ossicles) • Malleus: transmit sound from the tympanic membrane (ear drum) to the inner ear. Receives vibrations from the tympanic membrane and transmits this to the incus. • Incus: received vibrations from the malleus, to which it is connected laterally, and transmits these to the stapes medially. • Stapes: stirrup shaped. Transmits sound vibrations from the incus, to the oval window adjacent to the inner ear. Smallest bone in the body. Axial vs appendicular skeleton • Axial: bones arranged along the longitudinal axis of body; 80 bones such as skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum, and ribs • Appendicular: upper and lower extremities; 126 bones; limbs, appendages, shoulder,and hip. Vertebrae – atlas, axis • Atlas – C1, supports the skull • Axis – C2, permits side to side rotation of the head Skull – major bones and features (see your bone objective list) **Look at pictures in powerpoint** • Frontal Bone o Frontal sinus • Temporal Bone (2) o External acoutis meatus/canal, internal acoustic meatus/canal, mastoid process, styloid process, zygomatic arch, auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), condylar fossa/mandibular fossa • Parietal Bone (2) • Occipital Bone o Foramen magnum, occipital condyles • Sphenoid Bone o Sella turcica, hypophyseal fossa, sphenoidal sinus, optic foramen/canal • Ethmoid Bone o Cribiform plate, crista galli, perpendicular plate, middle nasal concha, olfactory foramina • Nasal Septum o Vomer, septal cartilage, perpendicular plate of the ethmoid • Facial Bones o Nasal bone, lacrimal bone, palatine bone, maxilla bone, zygomatic bone (zygomatic arch), mandible (mandibular condyle, condylar process), inferior nasal concha, vomer • Sutures o Coronal, Squamous, Lambdoid, Sagittal • Paranasal Sinuses o Frontal, Maxillary, Sphenoidal, Ethmoid Ch. 89 Which bones articulate with each other • Clavicle articulates with sternum • Scapula articulates with clavicle and humerus • Humerus articulates with scapula and radius/ulna • Radius/ulna articulate with humerus and 3 carpal bones • Ilium, ishium, and pubis all articulate with one another • Femur articulates with hip bone and tibia, NOT fibula • Sacral articulates with pelvic girdle # of phalanges in hands and feet • 14 phalanges in the hand and foot. 3 in each finger/toe, 2 in each thumb/big toe. Parts of the Coxal bone • Ilium: larger of the three portions, all eventually fuse together • Ischium: inferior, posterior portion of the hip bone • Pubis: anterior and inferior part of the hip bone. True vs. false pelvis • True (lesser) pelvis: area of the bony pelvis inferior to the pelvic brim • False (greater) pelvis: area of the bony pelvis inferior to the pelvic brim. Major weight bearing bones of the leg • Tibia is most weight bearing • Pelvic Girdle • Femur is very strong Joints of the hands • Proximal – base of finger • Middle - middle of the finger • Distal – closest to fingertip Tarsal bones (see bone objective list) • 7 bones: talus, calcaneus, cuboid (below calcaneus), navicular (below talus), cuneiform (medial [closer to arch], intermediate, lateral) Major bones of the appendicular skeleton • 4 bones in the shoulder girdle • 6 bones in the arm and forearm • 58 bones in the hands • 2 pelvis bones • 8 bones in legs • 56 bones in the feet10 Joints between clavicle, sternum and scapula • Clavicle articulates with the manubrium of the sternum, and the lateral end articulates with the acromion of the scapula. Metacarpal bones (base, shaft, head) • I, II, III, IV, V (V being pinky) • Base is towards wrist, shaft is middle, head is towards end of finger) Ch. 9 All types of movements synovial joints can produce (we practiced in class!) • Abduction: movement of bone away from the midline • Adduction: movement of bone toward the midline • Circumduction: circular movement • Flexion: decrease in angle between articulating bones • Extension: increase in angle between articulating bones • Hyperextension: continuation of extension beyond the anatomical position • Rotation: bone revolves around its own longitudinal axis • Medial Rotation: bone turns towards the midline (arm bent, moving towards stomach) • Lateral Roation: bone turns away from midline (arm bent, moving away from stomach) • Elevation: upward movement of body part (closing mouth) • Depression: downward movement of body part (opening mouth) • Protraction: movement anteriorly in the transverse plane (jaw moving away) • Retraction: movement back to anatomical position (putting jaw back) • Inversion: soles move medially (rolling an ankle) • Eversion: soles move laterally (rolling an ankle the not normal way) • Dorsiflexion: bending the foot at the ankle, superior surface (pointing up) • Plantar flexion: bending the foot at the ankle, plantar surface (pointing towards ground) • Supination: movement of the forearm where palm is turned anteriorly or inferiorly. (palm up) • Pronation: movement of the forearm where palm is turned posteriorly or inferiorly. (palm down) • Opposition: move thumb to pinky. Definition and examples of each type of structural joint: Fibrous joints • Sutures: dense fibrous connective tissue • Syndesmoses: more dense connective tissue than a suture o Gomphosis (teeth) • Interosseous Membranes: a broad sheet of dense fibrous connective tissue Cartilaginous joints • Synchondrosis: hyaline cartilage; no movement o Ex. Epiphyseal plate11 • Symphysis: fibrocartilage; some movement o Ex. Pubic symphysis Synovial joint structures and characteristics • Articular artilage on ends of long bones and a synovial cavity between articulating bones surrounded by accessory ligaments; freely moveable o Ex. Hip, Knee, Shoulder, Elbow Functions of synovial fluid • Secreted by the synovial membrane, lubricates, and reduces friction in the joint and supplies nutrients to and removes metabolic wastes from the joint. Functional classification of joints (amphi-, syn- and diarthroses) and examples of where you can find them in the body • Synarthroses: allow NO movement o Ex. Suture, gomphosis • Amiphiarthroses: allow LITTLE movement o Ex. Pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs • Diarthroses: FREELY moveable; synovial o Ex. Hip, Knee, Shoulder, Elbow Functional vs. structural joint classification • Functional: What degree of movement is permitted? • Structural: Is there a joint cavity? What type of connective tissue is involved? Structure of the knee joint and the function of ALL the major structures • Largest and most complex joint of the body, consisting of three joints within a single synovial cavity o Modified hinge joint. • Movements include flexion, extension, slight medial rotation, and lateral rotation of the leg in a flexed position. Types of cartilaginous joints • Synchrondosis: connecting material is hyaline cartilage, allowing NO movement • Symphysis: connecting material is a disc of fibrocartilage, allow SOME movement. (intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis) • Epiphyseal Cartilage: hyaline cartilage localized in growth centers during endochondral bone formation.