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Samenvatting European History
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- European History
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- Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB)
Cursus/Samenvatting European History (slides + teksten + notities)
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1THE FRENCH REVOLUTION1.1 THE CONTEXT OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815)
o Not the first revolution in its kind
Glorious revolution (1688 – 1689: England)
: Abdication of Catholic King and replacement by protestant king -> different religious
churches + different royal families involved -> switch from catholic to protestant church
The American Revolution (1775-1783) -> Inspired by John Locke
: American independence from GB -> different motive + outcome than glorious revolution =>
were still very dependent on UK -> wanted more fair representation, “no taxation, w/o
representation”, people have right to protest if they do not agree
o Impact of these revolutions
England: breach with tradition of “divine right to rule” -> if no roman catholic could be king
then no kingship could be unconditional
USA: rights of representation and revolt against ‘unjust’ rule
John Locke (1689): Two Treatises of Government
o Two main premises:
No government can be justified by one’s appeal to the Divine Right of Kings
Legitimate government needs to be founded on the consent of the governed
= gives alternative to absolute rulers
o Social Contract Theorist – justification for the “state”:
State of nature – Rational man
He wanted a civil government founded on popular sovereignty
= humans = rather peaceful w/o government -> find common ground = voice of reason
2 Controversial ideas: right to rule no longer comes from above “God”, but from below -> the
people
Hops complete opposite of Locke -> w/o government lots of conflicts => used in cases of
absolute governments
Run-up to the French Revolution
o 1) Economics – Financial Bankruptcy
Louis XIV (“Sun King”) mass expenditures – Palace of Versailles
French campaign in support of the American Revolution
1
, Seven Year War (England/France): loss of many colonies (North America, Louisiana,
Caribbean Islands, …)
Poor harvests, famine, and already harsh taxes and income inequalities
o 2) Politics: struggle with provincial “parlements”
Louis XVI: inherited struggle with provincial courts who held the right to appeal to the King’s
edicts -> could counteract laws the King made
o The dismissal of Jacques Necker, controller-general of Finance
Necker was critical of tax exemptions for nobility and clergy -> was tegen de
belastingsvrijstelling van de twee hoogste standen
Favours borrowing money abroad; rather than increasingly (already high) taxes on
commoners
o The gamble of Louis XVI (1787-88)
Proposes a “land tax” on all landowners (including nobility)
“Assembly of notables” rejects the King’s proposal
King attempts to bypass them by calling for a meeting of the Estates-General (= parliament)
: Instigates discussions on institutional design … leading to French Revolution (How to
organise parliament? Asked for in 1787-88)
How to raise money to repay debts of France?
= Jacques Necker is dismissed >>> France depends on nobility and aristocracy -> cannot ask
them to pay more taxes
Aristocracy does not agree with “land tax”
France was in crisis: had too many debts and too little resources to solve it
1.1.1 Ancien Régime system
•Demographic growth •Geography
- 1700: 20 million --- 1780: approaching - A jigsaw of land; result of previous
25 to 28 million conquests
•An agricultural nation - 1664: Saint-Domingue (today’s Haiti)
- 80% of the French people live on the - 1770: Corsica
countryside •Famine
- 20% live in urban areas; only eight cities - 1780s: Poor harvests
with a population over 50.000 people - 1788: harsh winter (57 straight days of
- Paris: 650.000 people frost in Paris); followed by floods
•Non-industrialised - Food shortages in cities
- Agriculture = 75% of all production
2
, - But low in productivity (labour - Ban on food exports, import of 148,000
intensive, out-dated methods) tonnes of cereal and grain
- Small estates (inheritance laws) - Rising bread prices: 70-90% of the daily
- Only large-scale farming around Paris wage of an unskilled worker
- Failed to keep up with demographic
growth
Agriculture
“The [French] country is a heap of ashes. Grass is scarcely to be seen and all sorts of grain is short,
thin, pale and feeble, while the flax is quite dead... I pity this people from my soul... No green peas, no
salad, no vegetables to be had upon the road, and the sky is still as clear, dry and cold as ever. The
flocks of sheep and herds of cattle stalk about the fields like droves (herds) of walking skeletons.”John
Adams, US diplomat*, 1775
Politics -> Always tense relationship between parliament & King
o King ruled by divine right (was almighty = absolute ruler)
Some restrictions on King’s power via moral and divine laws, customs, principles of
administration
Decision-making with King’s council (consultative prerogatives = raadgevend voorrecht)
o Absolutist rule = absence of a constitution (geen grondwet)
Precise codes and rules varied across regional courts (legal pluralism = existence of multiple
legal systems within one population and/or geographic area)
!!! interpreted differently throughout the country => NO sole constitution, NO uniformity =>
CHAOS -> legal system is arbitrary + not consistent
o An intendancy system
Great centralisation of power via system of provincial intendants (non-hereditary) (= high
ranking officials or administrators)
Supervision & enforcement of the King’s will (=> very dependent on the King)
Power over policing, finance, justice
“Parlements” = source of resistance against absolutist rule = provincial courts of appeal (judiciary
power1)
1
A balance of power thus arises: the different powers of the State maintain an equilibrium between themselves.
3
, o Historical origin: King’s council
“Droit de remontrance”: power to appeal (in beroep gaan) to royal edicts2
From 15th century onwards: election of three deputies (afgevaardigden) / town (a noble, an
ecclesiastic, a burgess)
13 parlements but very uneven districts
Paris court approx. 1/3 of France + very critical of King’s edicts
“Parlements”: a growing challenge to the King’s divine rights
o 1667: Louis XIV weakens right to appeal; later bans all “unrespectful appeals”
o 1766: Louis XV “Flagellation” speech in Paris Parliament :
Reminds parliament of his divine right to rule (only one who can make laws, has power etc. ->
parliaments can only ‘add’ things to rule of King -> not change => Have no autonomous
existence) => TODAY = populist (references indirectly idea of Thomas Hops)
Reduces practice to a one-time appeal + only short delay of royal edicts
o 1771: “coup de majesté”: reform of justice system; strictly defined system of appeals (-> door
Louis XV: vandaag vergelijkbaar met staatsgreep)
o Louis XVI restores right to appeal – quest for popularity; but rising use challenges King’s
authority (-> did not make him more popular only made his authority weaker)
Estates-general: legislative body -> Effect on FR?
o The legislative or consultative assembly of the three estates (drie standen)
o Advisory body to the King; presenting petitions (“cahiers”) from the three estates (especially on
fiscal policies)
o Late 15th century: elective character (third estate) incompatible with the divine right of Kings
o Met only intermittently, on the King’s initiative
o Last meeting = 1614 (absolute rule of King is established) … and then, in 1789
The three estates (= standenmaatschappij)
o PRAYER: First estate = catholic clergy
Prayed for the people
All property (5-10% of the land) was tax exempted (= vrijgesteld)
2
Royal edicts = edonopolitical legislation, missives (report) published directly by the monarch, that once
approved by the (zittende) royal, automatically becomes federal law.
4
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