Inhoudsopgave
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. The importance of PR................................................................................................................................................................5
1.2. What is rhetoric? The practice of speech and persuasion…......................................................................................................5
1.3. Political rhetoric.........................................................................................................................................................................5
1.4. A diverse research field?............................................................................................................................................................6
2. Rhetoric, a contested notion (Handbook: chapter 1 & 2)...................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy (Greece and Rome)..............................................................................................6
2.1.1. Plato against rhetoric............................................................................................................................................................7
2.1.2. Aristotle (student from Plato) in favour of rhetoric ...............................................................................................................8
2.1.3. Cicero......................................................................................................................................................................................9
2.2. Rhetoric diminished when modern state emerged (retoriek nam af toen de modern staat opkwam)....................................9
2.2.1. Hobbes....................................................................................................................................................................................9
2.2.2. Rousseau.................................................................................................................................................................................9
2.3. The political vs politics.............................................................................................................................................................10
3. Classical rhetoric – discovery and arrangement.................................................................................................................. 11
3.1. Occasions of speech.................................................................................................................................................................11
3.2. The issue = verwijst naar wat er op het spel staat bij een toespraak (what is at stake on any speech occasion)..................12
3.3. Discorvery = invention.............................................................................................................................................................12
3.3.1. Logos (reason)......................................................................................................................................................................12
3.3.2. Ethos (speakers’s character/authority)................................................................................................................................13
3.3.3. Pathos (emotion = the appeal to sentiment)........................................................................................................................14
3.4. Arrangement...........................................................................................................................................................................14
4. Style = the use of language................................................................................................................................................. 16
4.1. Figures of speech.....................................................................................................................................................................17
4.1.1. Schemes – repetition............................................................................................................................................................17
4.1.2. Schemes – playing with the grammar/syntactic patterns...................................................................................................18
4.1.3. Schemes – interaction..........................................................................................................................................................18
4.1.4. Tropes – substitution = the use of particular words to connote certain meanings..............................................................19
5. Delivery = deals with the techniques and qualities of performance.....................................................................................21
6. Acient rhetoric – conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 21
7. Mass media & rhetoric: speaking for the public.................................................................................................................. 22
7.1. The mediazation of politics / mediating the public domain....................................................................................................22
1
, 7.2. The media’s ambiguous role...................................................................................................................................................22
7.3. What’s news?..........................................................................................................................................................................23
7.3.1. News values..........................................................................................................................................................................23
7.4. Why do politicians adapt? Why do they really want to make it in the media?......................................................................24
7.5. The rhetoric politicians............................................................................................................................................................24
7.6. The rhetoric of mass media.....................................................................................................................................................26
7.7. Media and cultural studies......................................................................................................................................................26
7.8. television news as rhetorical genre.........................................................................................................................................26
7.9. Episodic vs thematic framing...................................................................................................................................................28
7.10. Media: curse or blessing for political rhetoric?.....................................................................................................................29
8. Research methods in PR – rhetorical political analysis........................................................................................................ 30
8.1. Diverse research goals.............................................................................................................................................................30
8.2. Rhetorical political analyses (RPA) = applying rhetoric to the study of politics......................................................................30
8.3. Focus on “ideas” (RPA)............................................................................................................................................................30
8.4. Question of agency (RPA)........................................................................................................................................................31
8.5. How to do rhetorical political analysis (RPA) a method.........................................................................................................32
8.6. Example RPA: inaugural speech of president John F. Kennedy...............................................................................................32
8.7. Quantitative content analysis (QCA).......................................................................................................................................33
8.8. How to do quantitative content analysis (QCA)......................................................................................................................34
8.9. Example QCA: Kalkhoven 2017................................................................................................................................................34
8.10. Internal/external validity (QCA)............................................................................................................................................35
8.11. Experimental research...........................................................................................................................................................35
8.12. How to do experimental research.........................................................................................................................................36
8.13. Example experiment: Tomz 2007..........................................................................................................................................36
8.14. Challenges (experimental research)......................................................................................................................................37
8.15. Other methods.......................................................................................................................................................................37
9. emotion & incivility (onbeleefdheid) – democracy, rhetoric and emotions..........................................................................37
9.1. deliberative democracy (to eliminate or minimize rhetorical exchanges in public dialogue).................................................38
9.2. Intro neuroscience/psychoanalysis both share the views that reason and emotion are interlinked .....................................39
9.2.1. neuroscience.........................................................................................................................................................................39
9.2.1.1. The use of fear/anxiety & enthusiasm (2 emotions that Marcus explains) with these emotions we can recognize the
accomplishment of persuasion (if we can’t see these emotions, we wouldn’t be able to do this)................................................40
9.2.1.2. Measuring affect...............................................................................................................................................................41
9.2.1.3. Emotional appeal of family metaphors.............................................................................................................................41
9.2.2. Psychoanalysis......................................................................................................................................................................41
9.3. Incivility (onbeleefdheid hate speech…) in politics.................................................................................................................42
9.4. Occurrence of incivility in politics............................................................................................................................................43
2
, 9.5. Effects of incivility in politics....................................................................................................................................................43
9.6. Emotional rhetoric: curse or blessing?....................................................................................................................................45
10. How persuasive is simple elite communication? Effects on like-minded and polarized audiences (guest lecture)...............46
10.1. Background: What is Political Persuasion?...........................................................................................................................46
10.2. Outline...................................................................................................................................................................................46
10.3. The starting point of this study: three major claims.............................................................................................................46
10.4. A conceptual example...........................................................................................................................................................47
10.5. Theoretical motivation..........................................................................................................................................................47
10.6. Premises.................................................................................................................................................................................47
10.7. Theoretical principle..............................................................................................................................................................47
10.8. Hypotheses............................................................................................................................................................................48
10.9. Complexity manipulation (democrat)....................................................................................................................................49
10.10. Dependent variable: post-treatment policy support...........................................................................................................49
10.11. Ensuring the study’s validity................................................................................................................................................49
10.12. Method................................................................................................................................................................................51
10.13. Results.................................................................................................................................................................................51
10.14. Experiment 2: summary......................................................................................................................................................52
10.15. So, how do voters respond to simple rhetoric? Results Overview.......................................................................................52
10.16. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................................53
11. Deliberative democracy – democracy as a puzzle (chapter 3: the rhetorical citizen)...........................................................53
11.1. Citizenship: ancient and modern...........................................................................................................................................53
11.2. What is politics? The politics of representation....................................................................................................................54
11.3. But then what?......................................................................................................................................................................56
11.4. Deliberative democracy as a solution....................................................................................................................................56
11.5. Should rationality be one of them or can emotions have their place?.................................................................................57
12. The rhetoric of populist leaders and parties...................................................................................................................... 57
12.1. Populism is all over the news................................................................................................................................................57
12.2. What is populism?.................................................................................................................................................................57
12.3. Diversity of populism.............................................................................................................................................................58
12.4. Example.................................................................................................................................................................................59
12.5. Populism as a communication style......................................................................................................................................59
12.6. The people as a rhetorical construct.....................................................................................................................................59
12.7. Elements of populist rhetoric.................................................................................................................................................59
12.7.1. Patriotism/ Invoking the heartland....................................................................................................................................59
12.7.2. Crisis rhetoric......................................................................................................................................................................60
12.7.3. Absolutism..........................................................................................................................................................................60
3
, 12.7.4. Colloquial language............................................................................................................................................................60
12.7.5. Emotionalization / negativism...........................................................................................................................................60
12.7.6. Intimization.........................................................................................................................................................................60
12.8. Exercise..................................................................................................................................................................................61
12.9. Populist language, simplistic language?...............................................................................................................................61
12.10. Use of populist rhetoric.......................................................................................................................................................62
12.11. Who uses populist rhetoric?................................................................................................................................................63
12.12. On what channels do politicians go populist?.....................................................................................................................63
4
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................................................... 5
1.1. The importance of PR................................................................................................................................................................5
1.2. What is rhetoric? The practice of speech and persuasion…......................................................................................................5
1.3. Political rhetoric.........................................................................................................................................................................5
1.4. A diverse research field?............................................................................................................................................................6
2. Rhetoric, a contested notion (Handbook: chapter 1 & 2)...................................................................................................... 6
2.1. Rhetoric was central to ancient democracy (Greece and Rome)..............................................................................................6
2.1.1. Plato against rhetoric............................................................................................................................................................7
2.1.2. Aristotle (student from Plato) in favour of rhetoric ...............................................................................................................8
2.1.3. Cicero......................................................................................................................................................................................9
2.2. Rhetoric diminished when modern state emerged (retoriek nam af toen de modern staat opkwam)....................................9
2.2.1. Hobbes....................................................................................................................................................................................9
2.2.2. Rousseau.................................................................................................................................................................................9
2.3. The political vs politics.............................................................................................................................................................10
3. Classical rhetoric – discovery and arrangement.................................................................................................................. 11
3.1. Occasions of speech.................................................................................................................................................................11
3.2. The issue = verwijst naar wat er op het spel staat bij een toespraak (what is at stake on any speech occasion)..................12
3.3. Discorvery = invention.............................................................................................................................................................12
3.3.1. Logos (reason)......................................................................................................................................................................12
3.3.2. Ethos (speakers’s character/authority)................................................................................................................................13
3.3.3. Pathos (emotion = the appeal to sentiment)........................................................................................................................14
3.4. Arrangement...........................................................................................................................................................................14
4. Style = the use of language................................................................................................................................................. 16
4.1. Figures of speech.....................................................................................................................................................................17
4.1.1. Schemes – repetition............................................................................................................................................................17
4.1.2. Schemes – playing with the grammar/syntactic patterns...................................................................................................18
4.1.3. Schemes – interaction..........................................................................................................................................................18
4.1.4. Tropes – substitution = the use of particular words to connote certain meanings..............................................................19
5. Delivery = deals with the techniques and qualities of performance.....................................................................................21
6. Acient rhetoric – conclusion............................................................................................................................................... 21
7. Mass media & rhetoric: speaking for the public.................................................................................................................. 22
7.1. The mediazation of politics / mediating the public domain....................................................................................................22
1
, 7.2. The media’s ambiguous role...................................................................................................................................................22
7.3. What’s news?..........................................................................................................................................................................23
7.3.1. News values..........................................................................................................................................................................23
7.4. Why do politicians adapt? Why do they really want to make it in the media?......................................................................24
7.5. The rhetoric politicians............................................................................................................................................................24
7.6. The rhetoric of mass media.....................................................................................................................................................26
7.7. Media and cultural studies......................................................................................................................................................26
7.8. television news as rhetorical genre.........................................................................................................................................26
7.9. Episodic vs thematic framing...................................................................................................................................................28
7.10. Media: curse or blessing for political rhetoric?.....................................................................................................................29
8. Research methods in PR – rhetorical political analysis........................................................................................................ 30
8.1. Diverse research goals.............................................................................................................................................................30
8.2. Rhetorical political analyses (RPA) = applying rhetoric to the study of politics......................................................................30
8.3. Focus on “ideas” (RPA)............................................................................................................................................................30
8.4. Question of agency (RPA)........................................................................................................................................................31
8.5. How to do rhetorical political analysis (RPA) a method.........................................................................................................32
8.6. Example RPA: inaugural speech of president John F. Kennedy...............................................................................................32
8.7. Quantitative content analysis (QCA).......................................................................................................................................33
8.8. How to do quantitative content analysis (QCA)......................................................................................................................34
8.9. Example QCA: Kalkhoven 2017................................................................................................................................................34
8.10. Internal/external validity (QCA)............................................................................................................................................35
8.11. Experimental research...........................................................................................................................................................35
8.12. How to do experimental research.........................................................................................................................................36
8.13. Example experiment: Tomz 2007..........................................................................................................................................36
8.14. Challenges (experimental research)......................................................................................................................................37
8.15. Other methods.......................................................................................................................................................................37
9. emotion & incivility (onbeleefdheid) – democracy, rhetoric and emotions..........................................................................37
9.1. deliberative democracy (to eliminate or minimize rhetorical exchanges in public dialogue).................................................38
9.2. Intro neuroscience/psychoanalysis both share the views that reason and emotion are interlinked .....................................39
9.2.1. neuroscience.........................................................................................................................................................................39
9.2.1.1. The use of fear/anxiety & enthusiasm (2 emotions that Marcus explains) with these emotions we can recognize the
accomplishment of persuasion (if we can’t see these emotions, we wouldn’t be able to do this)................................................40
9.2.1.2. Measuring affect...............................................................................................................................................................41
9.2.1.3. Emotional appeal of family metaphors.............................................................................................................................41
9.2.2. Psychoanalysis......................................................................................................................................................................41
9.3. Incivility (onbeleefdheid hate speech…) in politics.................................................................................................................42
9.4. Occurrence of incivility in politics............................................................................................................................................43
2
, 9.5. Effects of incivility in politics....................................................................................................................................................43
9.6. Emotional rhetoric: curse or blessing?....................................................................................................................................45
10. How persuasive is simple elite communication? Effects on like-minded and polarized audiences (guest lecture)...............46
10.1. Background: What is Political Persuasion?...........................................................................................................................46
10.2. Outline...................................................................................................................................................................................46
10.3. The starting point of this study: three major claims.............................................................................................................46
10.4. A conceptual example...........................................................................................................................................................47
10.5. Theoretical motivation..........................................................................................................................................................47
10.6. Premises.................................................................................................................................................................................47
10.7. Theoretical principle..............................................................................................................................................................47
10.8. Hypotheses............................................................................................................................................................................48
10.9. Complexity manipulation (democrat)....................................................................................................................................49
10.10. Dependent variable: post-treatment policy support...........................................................................................................49
10.11. Ensuring the study’s validity................................................................................................................................................49
10.12. Method................................................................................................................................................................................51
10.13. Results.................................................................................................................................................................................51
10.14. Experiment 2: summary......................................................................................................................................................52
10.15. So, how do voters respond to simple rhetoric? Results Overview.......................................................................................52
10.16. Conclusion............................................................................................................................................................................53
11. Deliberative democracy – democracy as a puzzle (chapter 3: the rhetorical citizen)...........................................................53
11.1. Citizenship: ancient and modern...........................................................................................................................................53
11.2. What is politics? The politics of representation....................................................................................................................54
11.3. But then what?......................................................................................................................................................................56
11.4. Deliberative democracy as a solution....................................................................................................................................56
11.5. Should rationality be one of them or can emotions have their place?.................................................................................57
12. The rhetoric of populist leaders and parties...................................................................................................................... 57
12.1. Populism is all over the news................................................................................................................................................57
12.2. What is populism?.................................................................................................................................................................57
12.3. Diversity of populism.............................................................................................................................................................58
12.4. Example.................................................................................................................................................................................59
12.5. Populism as a communication style......................................................................................................................................59
12.6. The people as a rhetorical construct.....................................................................................................................................59
12.7. Elements of populist rhetoric.................................................................................................................................................59
12.7.1. Patriotism/ Invoking the heartland....................................................................................................................................59
12.7.2. Crisis rhetoric......................................................................................................................................................................60
12.7.3. Absolutism..........................................................................................................................................................................60
3
, 12.7.4. Colloquial language............................................................................................................................................................60
12.7.5. Emotionalization / negativism...........................................................................................................................................60
12.7.6. Intimization.........................................................................................................................................................................60
12.8. Exercise..................................................................................................................................................................................61
12.9. Populist language, simplistic language?...............................................................................................................................61
12.10. Use of populist rhetoric.......................................................................................................................................................62
12.11. Who uses populist rhetoric?................................................................................................................................................63
12.12. On what channels do politicians go populist?.....................................................................................................................63
4
