Psychology summary (2021/2022)

Psychology: Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology

1. Exploring the scope of Psychology

Psychology in movies
 Soprano’s, Mad Men, …
- Only reflection of clinical and counselling psychology
- This field is focused on helping people improve their social/emotional environment)

 Awakenings  Catatonic behavior (= Inability to speak/move/respond)

 Memento  Anterograde amnesia (= Inability to create new memories after a certain
moment)

 A Beautiful Mind  Schizophrenia (= Chronic mental illness where patient loses touch
with reality)

 As Good as it Gets  Obsessive compulsive disorder (= Excessive perfectionism,
attention to detail, need for control, …)

 However, psychology is not always about
- Mental illness and therapy
- Diagnosis and treatment of mental problems

 Psychology is also about the mental health of people + improving performance
- Psychology = Science of behavior and mental processes
- Psychology is not psychiatry  More medical aspect of human behavior + mental issues

Positive psychology
- Scientific study of optimal functioning and well-being
- Science of flourishing, happiness, strength, resilience, positivity and optimism
- What makes us happy  Leads to increase of well-being
- How to thrive both personally and professionally

 PERMA-model of well-being ( 5 key factors for well-being + optimal functioning)
1. Positive emotions
= Living a good life, happiness, optimism ( How to generate these feelings)
2. Engagement
= Ability to fully engage in an activity with passion
3. Relationships
= Authentic relationships between people give meaning to life
4. Meaning
= Having a goal in life to live up to
5. Achievement
= Ability to achieve a goal (+ feeling of fulfillment)
(6. Vitality = Living in good health)

,Psychology is a broad field with many specialties ( Some examples)
- Industrial and organizational psychologists
Specialize in personnel selection and tailoring the work environment to maximize
productivity and morale ( Improvement of management skills, enhancement of
motivation, training workforce, …)

- Sport psychologists
Helps athletes improve performance by planning effective practice sessions, enhancing
motivation and learning how to control emotions under pressure

- School psychologists
Experts in teaching and learning

- Clinical and counseling psychologists
Expert in helping people improve social and emotional relationships. They help people
through difficult times in their lives ( Usually concerning someone’s career, education,
relationship, …)

- Forensic psychologists
Provide psychological expertise to the legal and judicial system.
They may test prisoners to determine readiness for release, help with jury selection or
evaluate the credibility of a testimony.

Basic/fundamental psychology vs. Applied psychology
 Basic/fundamental psychology
- Theory- driven, hypothesis-testing science
- Driven by a quest to gain fundamental understanding of basic concepts of life

 Applied psychology
- Real-world application of theoretical concepts
- Motivated more by a desire to solve practical issues

 Constant interplay between these 2 types of psychology
- Basic psychology creates theoretical concepts
- Applied psychology tests out and judges these concepts

 Examples of fundamental/basic psychological topics
- How does light entering our eyes lead to a meaningful visual experience? ( Perception)
- What factors influence judgement and decision-making?
- What motivates us and how?
- What shapes our personality and behavior?

,2. Psychology as a science

Common sense approach vs. evidence-based approach
 Common sense approach
- Actions most people would undertake in a certain situation
- No influence of prior evidence/information
- Relying only on common sense can result in a very adverse outcome

 Evidence-based practice
- Practice/actions based purely on scientific evidence
- Results in more desirable outcomes

Pseudo-psychology vs. psychology as a science
 Pseudo-psychology
- Astrology, horoscopes, common sense knowledge, …
- Not based on any scientific evidence

 Psychology as a science
- Purely based on scientific evidence
- Application of a scientific method + critical thinking skills `

The scientific method
 The scientific method requires systematic observation + the usage of tried-and-true
empiric methods
- Empirical  Based on observable datasets
- Controlled  All circumstances/external influences are controlled
- Free of bias  Objective + verifiable

 Procedure
1. Making observations ( Psychologist looks at nature)
2. Thinking of interesting questions ( Why does this pattern occur?)
3. Formulating hypothesis ( Possible cause of this phenomenon)
4. Developing testable predictions ( Expectations in case hypothesis is correct)
5. Gathering data to test predictions ( Testing requires replication to verify results)
(6. Accept/refine/expand/reject the hypothesis  Start over at step 4)
7. Development of a general theory ( Must be consistent with data and existing theories)

 Formulation of a Hypothesis
- Statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study
- Relationship among variables of a study
- Must be falsifiable
- Hypothesis must be operationally defined ( Everything must be very carefully defined)
- How hypothesis will be tested depends on how it is defined
- Psychology as a science does not aim to make judgments about value

,  Collection of objective data
- Using one of many tried-and-true method ( To avoid false conclusions)
- Creation of 2 conditions ( Experimental and control condition)
- Random assignment of subjects to conditions ( Treatment of subjects)
- Any hypothesis can be tested in multiple ways

 Analyze the results to accept/reject the hypothesis
- Often implies using statistics ( Statistical significance of findings)
- Statistics helps us determine the relationship between variables
- Investigate statistical differences between 2 conditions ( Experimental + control)

 If hypothesis is accepted  Publication
- Study/article is sent to a journal (for publication)
- Editor first reads abstract of the study to decide on publication
- Study is anonymously sent to multiple reviewers ( Assessment of accuracy of study)
- The editor of the journal then decides on publication ( Or required revision of the study)
- In many cases, article requires multiple rounds of revision/modification ( Peer review)

 Scientists seek to explain by means of a theory
- Theory = Testable explanation for a set of facts
- One theory often includes multiple hypotheses
- Example  Cognitive Dissonance Theory ( Contradictive thoughts and behavior)