BIO 235 Midterm 1 2022 – Questions and Answers. Anatomy – the science of body structures and the relationship among them
Physiology – The science of body functions – how body parts work
Dissection – careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships
Levels of Structu...
,CHAPTER 1
Anatomy – the science of body structures and the relationship among them
Physiology – The science of body functions – how body parts work
Dissection – careful cutting apart of body structures to study their relationships
Levels of Structural Organization:
Chemical (letters of alphabet)
– most basic level that includes atoms and molecules
atoms → smallest units of matter that participate in chemical reactions
molecules → two+ atoms joined together
Cellular – (words)
– molecules combine to form cells (basic structural and functional units of an organism that are composed of chemicals)
- smallest living unit in the human body
Tissue – (words put together to make sentences)
- groups of cells and the materials surrounding them
- work together to perform a function
- four basic types: epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
Organ – (sentences make paragraphs)
- two or more different types of tissues are joined together to form organs
- stomach, skin, lungs, bones. Heart, brain
System – (chapter in our language)
- consists of related organs with a common function
- ex. Digestive system (mouth, salivary glands, pharynx,etc.)
- pancreas is part of both digestive and endocrine system
Organism (book)
- any living individual
- all body parts functioning together
Systems of the Human Body
11 essential systems of the human body
Integumentary System
- COMPONENTS → skin and associated structures (hair, fingernails, toenails, sweat glands, oil glands)
- FUNCTIONS → protects body, regulates body temp, eliminates some waste, makes vit D, detects sensations (warmth,
pain)
Skeletal System
- COMPONENTS → bones and joints of the body and associated cartilages
- FIUNCTIONS → supports and protects body, provides surface area for muscle attachments, aids body movements, houses
cells that produce blood cells, stores minerals and lipids
Muscular System
- COMPONENTS → skeletal muscle tissue (muscle attached to bone)
- FUNCTIONS → participates in body movements, maintains posture, produces heat
Nervous System
- COMPONENTS → brain, spinal cord, nerves, eyes and ears
- FUNCTIONS → generates action potentialsto regulate body activities, detects changes in bodys internal and external
environment, interprets changes and responds by causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions
Endocrine System
- COMPONENTS → hormone producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus, thyroid gland,
parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries and testes)
- FUNCTIONS → regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers transported in blood from endocrine
gland to target organ)
Cardiovascular System
- COMPONENTS → blood, heart and blood vessels
- FUNCTIONS → heart pumps blood through blood vessels, blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells and CO2 and waste
,away from cells, regulates acid-base balance, temp and water content of body fluids, blood helps defend against disease
and repairs damaged blood vessels
Lymphatic System and immunity
- COMPONENTS → lymphatic fluid and vessels (spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, tonsils, cells that carry out immune
responses)
- FUNCTIONS → returns proteins and fluid to blood, carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood, site for B and T cell
maturation (protect against disease causing microbes)
Respiratoy System
- COMPONENTS → lungs, pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box), trachea (windpipe), bronchial tubes
- FUNCTIONS → transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and CO2 vice versa, regulates acid-base balance of body fluids,
produces sound through vocal cords
Digestive System
- COMPONENTS → organs of gastrointestinal tract (mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine, anus) and
accessory organs that assist in digestion (salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas)
- FUNCTIONS → physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates solid wastes
Urinary system
- COMPONENTS → kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
- FUNCTIONS → produces, stores, and eliminates urine, eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition
of blood, maintains acid-base balance of body fluids, maintains body mineral balance, regulates production of red blood
cells
Reproductive Systems
- COMPONENTS → gonads (testes/ovaries) and associated organs (female: uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands,
male: epididymides, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, penis)
- FUNCTIONS → gonads produce gametes (sperm/oocytes) that unite to form a new organism, gonads release hormones
that regulate reproduction, associated organs transport and store gametes, mammary glands produce milk
Basic Life processes of Human Body (6)
Metabolism
- sum of all the chemical processes that occur in the body
- two phases:
- catabolism → breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components
- anabolism → building up complex chemical substances
Responsiveness
- bodys ability to detect and respond to changes
Movement
- motion of whole body, individual organs, single cells and tiny structures inside cells
Growth
- Increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, increase in number of cells, or both
Differentiation
- development of a cell from an unspecialized to specialized state
- stem cells (precursor cells) can divide and give rise to cells that undergo differentiation
Reproduction
- formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual
Homeostasis
condition of equilibrium in the body's internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body's many regulatory
processes
- important aspect of homeostasis is maintaining volume and composition of body fluids
- intracellular fluid (ICF) → fluid within cells
- extracellular fluid (ECF) → fluid outside the body cells
- interstitial fluid → ECF that fills narrow spaces between cells of tissues
How stress affects homeostasis
psychological stresses in our social environment cause homeostatic imbalances that are mild and temporary in most cases
and the body cells quickly restore balance in the internal environment through negative feedback systems
Feedback Systems
, - cycle of events in which the status of a body condition is monitored, evaluated, changed, remonitored, reevaluated, etc.
Components of a feedback system
Receptor → body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input (nerve impulse/chemical signal)
to a control center
Control Center → (brain) sets range of values within which a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates input it
receives from receptors, and generates outputs
Effector → receives output from control center and produces a response that changes the controlled condition
(response brings controlled condition back to homeostasis)
Negative vs positive feedback system
A positive feedback system strengthens or reinforces a change in a controlled condition while a negative feedback system
reverses or negates a change in a controlled condition
- positive feedback system must be stopped by an event outside of the system
- negative feedback system slows then stops as the controlled condition returns to its normal state
- negative feedback systems occur much more frequently than positive
Homeostasis and disease
disorder → abnormality of structure or function
disease → illness characterized by a recognizable set of signs and symptoms
- diseases are result of years of poor health that interfere with the bodys ability to maintain homeostasis
symptom → subjective changes in body functions that are not apparent to an observer
sign → objective changes that a clinician can observe and measure
Anatomical Position
standard position of reference where subject stands erect and upright and palms are turned forward with arms at side
- if a body is lying face down it is in prone position
- if a body is lying face up it is in supine position
Regional names
head (skull and face)
neck
trunk (chest abs pelvis)
upper limbs
lower limbs
groin
Directional terms
superior → toward the head, or the upper part of a structures
inferior → away from the head, or lower part of a structures
anterior → nearer to or at front of the body
posterior → nearer to or at the back of the body
medial → nearer to the midline (closer to middle of body)
lateral → farther from the midline
intermediate → between two structures
ipsilateral → on the same side of the body as another structure
contralateral → on opposite side of body from another structure
proximal → nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk: nearer to the origination of a structure
distal → farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk
superficial → toward or on the surface of the body
deep → away from the surface of the body
Planes
imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body parts
sagittal plane → vertical plane that divides the body or organ into right and left sides
- midsagittal plane divides it equally, while parasagittal plane divides it unequally
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