Approaches To Psychology- Introductie Gedragswetenschappen.
Chapter 1: Behaviour and Psychology.
Introduction.
Phrenology: A now discredited eighteenth-century theory which asserted that one could assess
ability by examining the shape of the skull.
Psychology: The scientific study of behaviour and experience. (By behaviour, researchers variously
mean observable responses, inner experience (thoughts, feelings, etc.) or both. It is scientific, in that
it is based on the methods of systematic observation and analysis which are part of all science.)
Psychological researchers face four particular challenges which are unique to their discipline.
- One challenge in psychology relates to the complexity of behavior. Given the richness of human
behaviour, psychologists must contend with a vast range of possibilities, and a correspondingly large
variety of data. Complexity: A characteristic of systems composed of large numbers of interacting
units (such as neurons in the brain), resulting in new patterns or phenomena not found in individual
units.
- Psychologists also face challenges related to the huma capacity for self-awareness. Self-observation
is prone to many sources of error, not the least of which is bias. Self-awareness: The capacity for
individuals or other living organisms to consciously observe their own behaviour.
- Reactivity. A concern related to self-awareness also arises when observing the behaviour of others.
Observing human behavior can lead to reactivity: The tendency for people to alter their behaviour
when they are being observed. In order to deal with reactivity, psychologists often resort to
complicated research designs, sometimes including deliberate deception to increase the chances of
people behaving naturally.
- Causality. Another challenge arises in terms of identifying the causes of behaviour. Traditionally,
science has viewed causality: The study of how actions or events produce (cause) a particular
outcome, as an important part of ‘understanding’, and psychology has tended to accept this goal.
However, the reality is that many different factors can influence behaviour in a given situation.
Why different approaches?
Ideally, we would have one simple set of principles which would explain every aspect of human
experience. At present, no such theory has been developed which has met with broad acceptance.
Instead, there are a number of different approaches which differ from each other in terms of their
basic assumptions, their methods and their theoretical structures. In effect, each approach
represents a distinct framework for the study of behaviour. The nature of theory formation in science
means that different approaches developed in response to the complexity of behavior, but also as a
result of personal and cultural factors.
The idea that we see things simply as they are is sometimes called ‘naïve realism’; however, the
process of perceiving is actually much more complex. Perception is an active process, not a passive
mirroring of the external world.
Perception: The process of selection, organization and interpretation of information about the world
conveyed by the senses.
At every moment, we encounter a tremendous variety of stimuli – sights, sounds, smells, etc.
unfortunately, the human brain has a limited capacity to deal with incoming information.
Selective attention: The perceptual process of selectively focusing on particular stimulus elements.
,The stimulus-bases process is sometimes called ‘bottom-up’ processing. At the same time, perceptual
experience is also influenced by various internal factors, such as our prior experience and
expectations. These factors (‘top-down’ processing) influences both the way that we interpret
selected stimuli, and also what we select.
Ambiguous figure: A picture or other visual stimulus which can be perceived in more than one way.
Ambiguous figures have long been of interest to psychologists studying perception. Such figures
illustrate that what we perceive is not based simply on what is ‘out there’, but is also influenced by
internal processes. On first encounter, it may seem that ambiguous figures have little to do with
everyday experience – but they actually underscore the processes which are part of all perception. In
trying to make sense of the world, we look for familiar patterns, and we interpret what we encounter
based on our prior experiences. When faced with a situation where there is incomplete information,
we fill in the gaps according to what seems probable.
Gestalt theory: A theory of behavior pioneered in the early part of the twentieth century by Kohler,
Wertheimer and others, which emphasized the active, creative nature of perception and learning
(Gestalt is German, and means roughly ‘organized whole’).
The principle of similarity: A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization, based on grouping together
similar elements.
The principle of proximity: A Gestalt principle which states that elements which are close together
tend to be perceived as a group.
Closure: In perception, the tendency to fill in incomplete patterns to produce a coherent whole.
Schema (pl., ‘schemata’): A mental framework which organized knowledge, beliefs, and expectations,
and is used to guide behaviour.
Whether simple or complex, schemata influence the way we perceive the world around us.
Depending on the schema one has, the same situation may be interpreted differently.
Stereotype: An oversimplified and often inaccurate perception of an individual based on generalizing
from schemata related to the individual’s group membership.
All schemata carry the risk of distorting reality, but the likelihood that we will recognize such
distortions is reduced by a phenomenon called confirmation bias.
Confirmation bias: A form of cognitive error based on the tendency to seek out information which
supports one’s beliefs, and to ignore contradictory information.
The more confident we are in our beliefs, the more likely is the danger of distortion, because we are
less likely to look for information that might reveal our error.
Schemata are not undesirable – most of the time, they aid us in efficiently and accurately processing
the vast amount of sensory information that we encounter. But perception is an imperfect process,
even as it is a crucial one in our dealings with the world. By understanding the perceptual process,
we are more likely to avoid errors.
Psychology as a discipline is characterized by not one, but several, different approaches. Five major
ones are the biological, behaviourist, cognitive, psychodynamic and humanistic approaches.
Complementarity: A concept developed by physicists to deal with the existence of two models which
are both useful, but not directly reconcilable (verenigbaar).
,Each approach to psychology may be only a partial view of the whole subject. And, each approach
may have something valuable to offer in our attempt to understand behaviour, even if no one
approach can answer all questions.
The origins of psychology.
Psychology did not exist as a specific discipline until the end of the nineteenth century. In the
broader sense, it can be argued that the origins of psychology go back even further. What has been
called the first ‘psychology experiment’ was performed in ancient Egypt, in about 700 BCE.
In general terms, psychology emerged out of two traditions: philosophy and natural science.
Philosophers have always been concerned with understanding the meaning of human experience,
and many basic concepts in psychology trace their origin back to philosophy. Along with philosophy’s
interest in human experience, psychology has been influenced by the study of the natural world.
Physics and the other natural sciences have been important to psychology both conceptually and in
terms of methods of study. Wilhelm Wundt and William James are two great pioneers, their
contributions taken together laid the foundation for most of modern psychology, while reflecting the
impact of philosophy and natural science.
The influence of the natural sciences is seen in the work of Wilhelm Wundt, who founded the first
major laboratory for psychology at Leipzig in 1879. Wundt’s conception of an experimental
psychology – physiologically-oriented, emphasizing basic sensory processes – was an important
influence in the early development of psychology, and many regard him as the founder of modern
psychology.
The influence of philosophy is reflected in the ideas of William James, an American contemporary of
Wundt’s, who wrote a highly influential text on psychology. James’s approach had an emphasis on
how the mind works, which came to be known as functionalism: an approach to the study of
behaviour pioneered by William James, which emphasizes the analysis of the processes by which the
mind works.
Structuralism: An approach to psychology pioneered by Wundt which attempted to analyse the
contents of the mind, using the introspectionist method.
Wundt was a precise and prolific experimenter, while James cared little for the laboratory. Yet, taken
together, they point toward two crucial aspects of modern psychology: the importance of making
careful observations, and the importance of asking the proper questions.
Methods of studying behaviour.
While the five approaches differ in the methods they emphasize, all psychologists share a belief in
the observational methods of science as the foundation of psychological research.
Empirical: Based on making observations, as in an empirical theory.
Psychology is empirical. The emphasis on empiricism is important, but does not directly tell us what
to observe, and how. Science depends on organized observation, based on the belief that
classification of observations will ultimately lead to an explanation of those observations.
Observations and theories are complementary to each other: observations suggest a theory, a theory
is tested by observations, observations suggest modifications of the theory, and so on.
Theory: A structured set of principles intended to explain a set of phenomena.
, Essentially, observations and theory are connected by two basic cognitive processes – inductive and
deductive reasoning.
Induction: A process of reasoning based on forming general principles from specific observations.
Deduction: The process of drawing specific conclusions from a set of general principles.
Most commonly in science, deduction is used to derive a hypothesis: A statement describing a
proposed relationship between variables; a specific outcome or prediction derived from a theory
which can be evaluated by making further observations.
Introspectionism: A method of gathering data in which the individual attempts to analyse the content
of their conscious mind; associated with the structuralist approach.
Despite its early popularity, introspectionism proved to be a questionable technique. The method
ultimately failed to provide clear answers. In part, this was due to the limitations inherent in the
process of perception. But a second weakness stems from trying to use private experiences as data.
To avoid the problems of introspection, psychology, like other forms of science, has come to
emphasize public techniques of observation, which make it possible for observers to agree on what
has occurred. In general, any aspect of behaviour which can be observed consistently is considered
open for possible study. Many physiological responses can also be considered public. When one
refers to mental states it becomes more ambiguous.
Some researchers also extend the requirement for public observation to the way terms are defined.
In the end, while all researchers accept the importance of using public processes to confirm
observations, not all psychologists see value in operational definitions.
Operational definition: A term whose meaning is defined by the processes or observable events used
to measure it.
In doing research on behaviour, there are a number of ways to gather information. As a result, a
researcher must make choices in terms of how to measure behaviour, what sort of setting to use,
and what type of research method to employ.
Generally speaking, observation can be based on two different ways of measuring behaviour: self-
report and direct observation. Self-report has the attraction of seeming very direct, and in some
cases it allows researchers to access information which is otherwise unobtainable, such as mental
processes.
Self-report: A method of gathering data which involves asking an individual to describe their
behaviour or mental state in some way, such as an interview, survey, or psychological inventory.
Think-aloud protocol: A transcript of the comments made when an individual is asked to describe
their thoughts and behaviour while working on a task such as problem solving.
Direct observation: Any observational technique which depends on direct measurement of behaviour
by the researcher, rather than asking an individual to report their behaviour.
Direct observation by an independent person tends to be more neutral or objective than self-report,
and is more easily verified by having multiple observers.
Research setting: The context in which research is conducted, either a laboratory setting (which
involves having participants come to a special location), or a field setting (which requires going to
where the people are whom the researcher wishes to study).
