SEXUAL OFFENDING,
PROSTITUTION AND HUMAN
TRAFFICKING
Inhoudsopgave
CHAPTER 1: TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS...............................................................................2
LEGAL APPROACHES............................................................................................................................. 3
GENDER-NEUTRAL CRIMINAL LAW APPROACH.........................................................................................3
CURRENT MAINSTREAM CRIMINAL LAW DEFINITION..................................................................................4
1st element: movement.................................................................................................................. 4
2nd (core!) element: means............................................................................................................ 4
3rd element: envisaged exploitation............................................................................................... 4
‘KNOWING USE’ OF SERVICES OFFERD BY THB VICTIMS..........................................................................5
LIABILITY OF LEGAL PERSONS................................................................................................................ 6
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN CRIMINAL MATTERS.............................................................................7
TRAFFICKING VS SMUGGLING................................................................................................................. 7
THB & MIGRATION POLICY.................................................................................................................... 8
SMUGGLING, CARRIER LIABILITY, FALSE DOCUMENTS..............................................................................8
LABOUR AND SOCIAL SECURITY LAW PERSPECTIVE.................................................................................9
INTRA- MIGRATION.............................................................................................................................. 10
Free movement, including for work............................................................................................... 10
Posting of workers........................................................................................................................ 10
TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS: POLICIES............................................................................................ 11
(1) prosecution.............................................................................................................................. 11
(2) protection (of victims).............................................................................................................. 11
(3) prevention............................................................................................................................... 13
(4) partnerships............................................................................................................................ 13
increased knowledge.................................................................................................................... 13
CHAPTER 2: PROSTITUTION AND SEX WORK...............................................................................14
LEGAL INSTRUMENTS: UN................................................................................................................... 14
POLICY DOCUMENTS: COE AND EU..................................................................................................... 16
DIFFERENT FRAMES............................................................................................................................ 16
Victim frame.................................................................................................................................. 16
Anti-social order frame................................................................................................................. 17
Agency frame............................................................................................................................... 17
DOMESTIC/MUNICIPAL APPROACHES/MODELS........................................................................................ 18
PREVENTION THB & NUISANCE IN PROSTITUTION SECTOR....................................................................19
(SELF)REGULATION BONA FIDE PROSTITUTION MARKET.........................................................................19
“ISO 69”............................................................................................................................................ 20
LEGALIZATION OR SELF-REGULATION VIA QUALITY STANDARDS..............................................................21
CHAPTER 3: CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE & ABUSE OF POWER OR AUTHORITY..............................22
GENERAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK: COE & EU........................................................................................... 22
CRIMINAL LAW APPROACH CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE...................................................................................22
age of sexual consent................................................................................................................... 22
child sexual abuse........................................................................................................................ 24
extra-territorial jurisdiction............................................................................................................ 25
disclosure | statutes of limitations: extension................................................................................26
non-prior conviction...................................................................................................................... 26
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, INTRAFAMILIAL ABUSE | DENIAL............................................................................................................ 29
EXTRAFAMILIAL ABUSE........................................................................................................................ 30
CHAPTER 4: CHILD SEXUAL EXPLOITATION, CSAM & GROOMING............................................31
GENERAL LEGAL FRAMEWORK: LEGAL APPROACHES..............................................................................31
SEXUAL EXPLOITATION OF CHILDREN.................................................................................................... 32
definitions..................................................................................................................................... 32
child sex tourism (CST)................................................................................................................ 33
CHILD SEXUAL ABUSE MATERIAL (CSAM)............................................................................................. 35
Definitions..................................................................................................................................... 35
role of INTERPOL & Europol........................................................................................................ 36
notice and take-down procedures.................................................................................................37
private detection and reporting | voluntary & mandatory..............................................................38
GROOMING......................................................................................................................................... 40
definitions..................................................................................................................................... 40
(internet) behavior........................................................................................................................ 41
CHAPTER 5: RAPE, SEXUAL ASSAULT & SEXUAL HARASSMENT..............................................41
EUROPEAN SOURCEBOOK DEFINITION.................................................................................................. 41
Rape............................................................................................................................................. 41
Sexual assault.............................................................................................................................. 42
LEGAL DEFINITIONS/REQUIREMENTS..................................................................................................... 42
CoE.............................................................................................................................................. 42
EU................................................................................................................................................ 43
RAPE MYTHS & REPORTING – VALIDITY BEYOND RAPE.........................................................................45
CONSENT........................................................................................................................................... 46
SEXUAL HARASSMENT, INCLUDING AMONG ADOLESCENTS.....................................................................46
VIRTUAL RAPE: RAPE OR SEXUAL HARRASSMENT?................................................................................47
CHAPTER 6: PORNOGRAPHY, EXHIBITIONISM, VOYEURISM.......................................................48
PORNOGRAPHY................................................................................................................................... 48
Liberalism & pornography............................................................................................................. 48
Role of pornography & sexual scripts........................................................................................... 49
Gender (in)equality....................................................................................................................... 50
YOUNG PEOPLE AND SEXUALIZED MEDIA | SEXTING...............................................................................51
EXHIBITIONISM.................................................................................................................................... 52
VOYEURISM........................................................................................................................................ 53
Definitions..................................................................................................................................... 53
Hypotheses.................................................................................................................................. 53
REVENGE PORN.................................................................................................................................. 54
Definitions & damage (/consequences)........................................................................................54
remedies / Criminalization............................................................................................................ 55
CHAPTER 7: BESTIALITY, ANIMAL PORN, BDSM & NECROPHILIA.............................................55
BESTIALITY & ANIMAL PORN................................................................................................................. 55
Bestiality....................................................................................................................................... 55
zoophilia: sexual orientation......................................................................................................... 56
animal porn................................................................................................................................... 56
BDSM & SM...................................................................................................................................... 56
NECROPHILIA...................................................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER 8: AI & ROBOTS................................................................................................................ 58
SEXUAL OFFENCES.............................................................................................................................. 58
CHAPTER 1: TRAFFICKING IN HUMAN BEINGS
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, LEGAL APPROACHES
Principal legal instruments
UN: 2 separate protocols because trafficking =/= smuggling (both are connected and
evolve into each other, but the 2 definitions are fundamentally different)
o 2000 Trafficking Protocol to UN TOC Convention (modern instrument)
o 2000 Smuggling Protocol to UN TOC Convention
o 1950 Convention on THB and exploitation prostitution (= bad old legal instrument,
paternalist convention that pleads for abolitionism when it comes to prostitution)
CoE: 2005 Warsaw Convention on THB
o Not identical, but the Council of Europe takes over the UN standard for the core
definition and approach
EU
o 2002 FD on THB (first frame-work decision, criminalized)
o 2004 residence permit directive for THB victims
o 2011 directive on THB, repealing the 2002 FD (2002 with important additions)
o 2022 proposal for a directive amending the 2011 directive
In red are the most important: they have the roughly the same approach
So: 3 level, one instrument per level, un update pending from the commission and
also a 2004 directive on residence permit from the EU
GENDER-NEUTRAL CRIMINAL LAW APPROACH
However particular vulnerability women: women are facing particular vulnerabilities,
especially in certain countries where we have …
feminization of poverty
gender discrimination
lack of educational/professional opportunities in home countries
Specific attention to (criminal) status of exploitation in prostitution
even then: gender-neutrality important
also: male/boys prostitution ! (we focus more on women because of the prevalence, but
we need to look in different directions, don’t forget about male prostitution)
gender: false rationale for criminalization clients of prostitution?
THB problem expanded from sexual to labour sphere
significant number of male victims
Earlier 90’s: trafficking for sexual exploitation, women being smuggled into Europe and
forced into prostitution Current reality in Europe for the last decade: 90% of victims are
typically young males, who are exploited in other labour spheres, so trafficking for sexual
exploitation has really diminished in our country
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, CURRENT MAINSTREAM CRIMINAL LAW DEFINITION
We take the 3 definitions of the UN, CoE and EU together, they have the same approach to
trafficking: trafficking is bad and needs to be criminalized when it consists of 3 elements:
1ST ELEMENT: MOVEMENT
Recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring, subsequent reception of a person,
including exchange or transfer of control over that person
even where no organised criminal group is involved
even where no border is crossed
even where the victim has legally entered, has legal residence in or is a national of the
state where the trafficking occurs (meaning: we may have trafficking of Belgians in
Belgium for example, it may be just a national phenomenon)
even where there is no profit motive
trafficking does NOT REQUIRE border-crossing, organized crime, foreigners
(buitenlanders) or a profit motive
2ND (CORE!) ELEMENT: MEANS
Where either, provided the person involved is not a child (i.e. a person below the age of 18),
in which case the above conduct will constitute punishable trafficking even if none of the
forthcoming means has been used
We need certain means to be in place (2nd element is only required for non-minors)
use is made of coercion, force or threat, including abduction
use is made of deceit or fraud
also: there is an abuse of authority or of a position of vulnerability, which is such that the
person has no real and acceptable alternative but to submit to the abuse involved
payments or benefits are given or received to achieve the consent of a person having
control over another person
The consent of the person involved being irrelevant where any of these means has been
used (not exclusively sex related): you can consent but it’s not valid and it’s still bad
3RD ELEMENT: ENVISAGED EXPLOITATION
Some sort of exploitation is being envisaged, it doesn’t need to happen or it doesn’t
need to be happened yet.
(Same on the 3 levels:) For the purpose of (either)
the exploitation of that person’s labour or services, including at least forced or
compulsory labour or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery or servitude
o various perspectives and implementation differences
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, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, including
in pornography (sexual sphere)
o important int’l legal, policy and implementation differences
organ transfer or removal (for EU: not until 2011 directive, not in the initial FD)
(Differences on 3 levels:) No consensus as to whether also for the purpose of
exploitation of begging (unless labour-related?) (EU directive): use children industry to
collect money and you start instrumentalizing women with children on the street)
exploitation of criminal activities (EU directive)
adoption (2nd Optional Protocol CRC + 2022 proposal EU amending directive): illegal
adoption of children who have been trafficked for that reason
forced marriage (2022 proposal EU amending directive)
Online dimension for the 3 elements (harbouring/recruitment may happen online):
explicitly incorporated in 2022 proposal EU amending directive (newly proposed Article 2a):
“shall include acts committed by means of information and communication technologies.”
‘KNOWING USE’ OF SERVICES OFFERD BY THB VICTIMS
Clients knowingly using the services of the trafficking: both the Warsaw convention and the
EU directive were suggesting that this might be a policy option, without making that
compelling (dwingend)
CoE (Council) 2005 Convention & 2011 EU THB directive | not compelling
idea: if they stop the demand the supply will stop
states were invited to consider criminalization as a means to tackle the demand side (it
was not mandatory)
demand-supply elasticity much underresearched, especially in sexual sphere
for which forms of exploitation | sex or labour as well? other?
2022 Proposal EU amending directive | compelling | newly proposed Article 18a (most
debative element of the 2022 proposal)
“the use of services which are the objects of exploitation as referred to in Article 2 [see
Article 2.3: “as a minimum, the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of
sexual exploitation, forced labour or services, including begging, slavery or practices
similar to slavery, servitude, or the exploitation of criminal activities, or the removal of
organs”], with the knowledge that the person is a victim of an offence referred to in Article
2”
=> if this passes states will be obliged to criminalize in a neutral fashion, across
sectors
Country level (examples) | so far essentially limited to sexual sphere: so far most countries
that chose to implement it have selectively and only introduced it for sex work
sexual sphere: interesting examples (UK, The Netherlands) (later)
o UK example: the idea is that all sexworkers are offering forced sex work, meaning
clients are punishable unless they can prove that sexworkers aren’t forced
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, (government actually implemented it because they wanted to be tough on
sexwork, sometimes states act like they want to protect women against trafficking
but in fact they are denying women and men the choice about their own sexual
integrity and their choices about selling sexual services)
o NL: one of the first countries who has implemented the grey proposed article in a
broader fashion also, not only sex work
labour sphere: only indirect user accountability through several liability or participation
Key question: how to operationalize?
How can you know as a client? (hoe kan klant weten of die dat vrijwillig doet of niet?)
We need transparancy/publicity mechanism, a possibility to distinguish bonafide and
malefide situations
Since they started legalization 20 years ago they work with licenses: the problem is that
clients don’t want to keep receipts and justifications, it’s being implemented now
Possible answer to distinguish: through quality labels & due diligence from user perspective
client/user orientation towards bona fide service providers
in order for them to avoid prosecution for knowing use (guilty knowledge)
It is criminalized BUT states have policies of tolerance (prostitution is everywhere, red
light districts…)
Right to refuse clients, entitled to safe sex…
LIABILITY OF LEGAL PERSONS
We require at least accountability of legal persons for offenses: states may choose for
administrative, civil or penal liability system (so criminal of non-criminal)
Important to provide that legal persons can be held liable of (facilitating) trafficking
commercial carriers, travel agencies, or - for some countries - brothels
UN Trafficking and Smuggling Protocols
o criminal, civil or administrative liability
EU FD and directive, upgraded by 2022 proposal for an amending directive
o criminal or non-criminal corporate liability for offences
national extension of extra-territorial jurisdiction for offences committed for benefit of a
legal person established in a state’s territory, could be envisaged (In BE valt iedereen
onder belgian criminal law, Belgen in buitenland?)
Quality standards for companies, labour offices, marriage bureaux, escort agencies, travel
agencies, brothels, … ?
research 2006: developed quality standards for those different industries
for example: a travel agency shouldn’t organize traveling to trafficking destinations
We must have liability of legal persons (they are punishable just like natural persons),
BUT let’s not overly believe solution-wise on liability
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