Chapter 3 – How Marketing
Communications Work
Hierarchy-of-effects model assumes that things have to happen in a certain order, implying that the
earlier effects form necessary conditions in order for the later effects to occur.
According to the model, consumers go through three different stages in responding to marketing
communications:
1. Cognitive consumers engage in mental thinking processes which lead to awareness and
knowledge of the brand communicated.
2. Affective emotional or evaluative responses occur which are associated with the advertised
brand and attitudes towards the brand are formed.
The difference between the affective and cognitive state is that in the cognitive state
consumers may become aware and gather information continuously and effortlessly, while in
affective reactions may only be formed when the need for an evaluation arises.
3. Conative undertaking actions with respect to the advertised brand, such as buying it.
In other words, consumers first need to learn or become aware of the brand. Then, they develop
affective responses or form an attitude towards the brand. Finally, this feeling or attitude make the
consumer want to buy the brand.
The model correctly assumes that affective responses cannot be formed or that a purchase cannot
take place without having an awareness of the brand.
Companies therefor strive to reach top of mind awareness, which indicates which brand is most
salient within a product category.
o It reflects the first brand that comes to mind when thinking of a particular product category.
Brands that are top of mind are more likely to be purchased.
Low-involvement hierarchy-of-effects model assumes that after frequent exposure to marketing
messages, consumers might buy the product and decide afterwards how they feel about it (cognitive-
conative-affective).
Experiential hierarchy-of-effects model assumes that consumers’ affective responses toward a
product lead them to buy it and, if necessary, they reflect on it later (affective-conative-cognitive).
In the Foote-Cone-Belding Grid, four different situations are distinguished, based on two dimensions
(involvement, feel/think).
Involvement the importance people attach to a product or a buying-decision, the extent to
which on has to think it over and the level of perceived risk associated with an inadequate brand
choice.
Think-feel a continuum reflecting the extent to which a decision is made on a cognitive or
affective basis.
,1. Purchase decisions are characterised by high involvement and rational decision criteria,
consumers first want to learn about the product. In this quadrant, the classical hierarchy effects
would hold.
2. Concerns products with high involvement but for which less information is needed. The consumer
first wants to be emotionally attracted by the brand image, then collect some information, and
then undertakes some action.
3. Product decisions require a minimum of cognitive effort, and tend to become routinised because
of habit information. Consumers first buy the product, then learning its major advantages and
disadvantages, and finally develop an attitude after product or brand usage.
4. Reflects decision-making regarding products which can be termed ‘life’s little pleasure’.
Consumers buy the product, experience an affective response and gather product knowledge
afterwards.
Rossiter-Percy Grid a modification of the FCB grid which classifies products in four categories,
based on involvement and transformational/informational buying motives.
Transformational = positive motivations, such as sensory gratification, social approval, or
intellectual stimulation.
Informational = reducing or reversing negative motivations such as solving or avoiding a problem,
or normal depletion.
Attitude formation and change
Attitude = a person’s overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organisation, an ad, etc.
A measure of how much a person likes or dislikes the brand, or the extend to which he/she holds
a favourable or unfavourable view of it.
An attitude consists of three components:
1. Cognitive reflects knowledge, beliefs, and evaluations of the object.
2. Affective the feelings associated with the object.
3. Behavioural action readiness with respect to the object.
To change attitudes, marketers might concentrate on changing one of the components.
Motivation = the willingness to engage in behaviour, make decisions, pay attention, process
information, etc.
Largely influences by consumer needs and goals. Needs can be classified into functional, symbolic,
or hedonic:
, o Functional to solve consumer problems.
o Symbolic how consumers see themselves and how they would like to be perceived by
others.
o Hedonic consumers’ desires for sensory pleasure.
Ability = the resources needed to achieve a particular goal.
Opportunity = the extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain a goal set.
Elaboration likelihood model if MOA are all high, the elaboration likelihood is said to be high and
consumers are expected to engage in central-route processing.
If MOA are low, consumers are more likely to process the information peripherally.
Central-route processing = consumers are willing to elaborate on the information, to evaluate the
arguments and find out what the information really has to offer.
Depending on the quality and credibility of the arguments, consumers will react by producing
counter-, support-, or neutral arguments, which induce a negative, positive or no attitude change.
Peripheral route = no real information processing, but and evaluation based on simple, peripheral
cues.
Consumers start paying attention to peripheral cues is because they form the only processable
information under circumstances of low motivation, ability and opportunity.
Attitudes through this route do not necessarily last long.
Communications Work
Hierarchy-of-effects model assumes that things have to happen in a certain order, implying that the
earlier effects form necessary conditions in order for the later effects to occur.
According to the model, consumers go through three different stages in responding to marketing
communications:
1. Cognitive consumers engage in mental thinking processes which lead to awareness and
knowledge of the brand communicated.
2. Affective emotional or evaluative responses occur which are associated with the advertised
brand and attitudes towards the brand are formed.
The difference between the affective and cognitive state is that in the cognitive state
consumers may become aware and gather information continuously and effortlessly, while in
affective reactions may only be formed when the need for an evaluation arises.
3. Conative undertaking actions with respect to the advertised brand, such as buying it.
In other words, consumers first need to learn or become aware of the brand. Then, they develop
affective responses or form an attitude towards the brand. Finally, this feeling or attitude make the
consumer want to buy the brand.
The model correctly assumes that affective responses cannot be formed or that a purchase cannot
take place without having an awareness of the brand.
Companies therefor strive to reach top of mind awareness, which indicates which brand is most
salient within a product category.
o It reflects the first brand that comes to mind when thinking of a particular product category.
Brands that are top of mind are more likely to be purchased.
Low-involvement hierarchy-of-effects model assumes that after frequent exposure to marketing
messages, consumers might buy the product and decide afterwards how they feel about it (cognitive-
conative-affective).
Experiential hierarchy-of-effects model assumes that consumers’ affective responses toward a
product lead them to buy it and, if necessary, they reflect on it later (affective-conative-cognitive).
In the Foote-Cone-Belding Grid, four different situations are distinguished, based on two dimensions
(involvement, feel/think).
Involvement the importance people attach to a product or a buying-decision, the extent to
which on has to think it over and the level of perceived risk associated with an inadequate brand
choice.
Think-feel a continuum reflecting the extent to which a decision is made on a cognitive or
affective basis.
,1. Purchase decisions are characterised by high involvement and rational decision criteria,
consumers first want to learn about the product. In this quadrant, the classical hierarchy effects
would hold.
2. Concerns products with high involvement but for which less information is needed. The consumer
first wants to be emotionally attracted by the brand image, then collect some information, and
then undertakes some action.
3. Product decisions require a minimum of cognitive effort, and tend to become routinised because
of habit information. Consumers first buy the product, then learning its major advantages and
disadvantages, and finally develop an attitude after product or brand usage.
4. Reflects decision-making regarding products which can be termed ‘life’s little pleasure’.
Consumers buy the product, experience an affective response and gather product knowledge
afterwards.
Rossiter-Percy Grid a modification of the FCB grid which classifies products in four categories,
based on involvement and transformational/informational buying motives.
Transformational = positive motivations, such as sensory gratification, social approval, or
intellectual stimulation.
Informational = reducing or reversing negative motivations such as solving or avoiding a problem,
or normal depletion.
Attitude formation and change
Attitude = a person’s overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organisation, an ad, etc.
A measure of how much a person likes or dislikes the brand, or the extend to which he/she holds
a favourable or unfavourable view of it.
An attitude consists of three components:
1. Cognitive reflects knowledge, beliefs, and evaluations of the object.
2. Affective the feelings associated with the object.
3. Behavioural action readiness with respect to the object.
To change attitudes, marketers might concentrate on changing one of the components.
Motivation = the willingness to engage in behaviour, make decisions, pay attention, process
information, etc.
Largely influences by consumer needs and goals. Needs can be classified into functional, symbolic,
or hedonic:
, o Functional to solve consumer problems.
o Symbolic how consumers see themselves and how they would like to be perceived by
others.
o Hedonic consumers’ desires for sensory pleasure.
Ability = the resources needed to achieve a particular goal.
Opportunity = the extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain a goal set.
Elaboration likelihood model if MOA are all high, the elaboration likelihood is said to be high and
consumers are expected to engage in central-route processing.
If MOA are low, consumers are more likely to process the information peripherally.
Central-route processing = consumers are willing to elaborate on the information, to evaluate the
arguments and find out what the information really has to offer.
Depending on the quality and credibility of the arguments, consumers will react by producing
counter-, support-, or neutral arguments, which induce a negative, positive or no attitude change.
Peripheral route = no real information processing, but and evaluation based on simple, peripheral
cues.
Consumers start paying attention to peripheral cues is because they form the only processable
information under circumstances of low motivation, ability and opportunity.
Attitudes through this route do not necessarily last long.
