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Powers and borders detailed notes with essay titles and plans for OCR A-Level geography paper 2
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POWERS & BORDERS NOTES1.a. The world political map of sovereign nation-states is dynamic
● The world political map shows territories of sovereign nation-states. These are spatially bound areas of
land, which physically define independent, self-governing countries.
● The significance of these border changes is more than a matter of territory. They affect sovereignty
over population & physical resources, influence the economy & social geography of each area
including ethnic groups and they influence global patterns of trade & migration. E.g South Sudan
● The world political map also shows disputed international borders [international border = geographical
boundary of a sovereign state, defined & recognised by international law & identified on the political
map of the world]. E.g the claims of India, Pakistan & China in the Jammu & Kashmir area
● Changes to the world political map, through the processes of integration have created politically strong
& economically important groups of countries e.g regional trading blocs such as the EU - its recent
expansion includes accessions of Croatia in 2013, Bulgaria & Romania in 2007 & ten other states in
2004
★ Sovereignty = complete authority of the government over the land & its people in its territory
★ Territory = the area of land that a state controls
★ Territorial integrity = the area of land a state legitimately controls, which can’t be violated.
★ Self- determination = the right of a group to freely determine its political status & pursue its own
development
★ State = area of land of an independent country with clear boundaries & people organised under a
single government
★ Nation = large group of people with a shared, strong identity united by culture, language, traditions,
religion, etc. People from a nation can live in multiple states. E.g Kurds - they live in Turkey [18m],
Syria [2m], Iraq [5m],Iran [8m] & 2 million live across the rest of the world. 2 nations can live in one
state. Usually they don't have sovereignty over an area - Kurdistan. Other examples = Basque region
★ Nation-state = when a nation has an independent state of its own. State that has sovereignty over a
single nation. E.g, Japan, France
Characteristics of state:
● A defined territory that’s internationally recognised [UN]
● A single government that’s internationally recognised by other states - usually through U.N
membership. [Kosovo only recognised by ½ UN states as an independent state in 2020 - Kosovo is a
part of Serbia thats a disputed country so don’t recognise state or government]
● Capacity to engage in formal relations with other states
● Independent & self-governing [other states shouldn’t interfere with running of a state] i.e ‘external
sovereignty.’ [Russia has annexed Crimea which used to be part of Ukraine - dispute over territorial
integrity. Ukraine should have Crimea as part of the state because it was within their borders - Russia
shouldn’t be allowed to intervene or change the borders of Ukraine]
● Maintains sovereignty [i.e political authority] effectively through its territory through the state apparatus
[institutions e.g police force, education system, legal system, healthcare]
● Permanent population [not nomadic] who has the right to self determination
➔ A state may also be influential in the global spread of its cultural attributes such as so-called
‘Americanisation.’
➔ State power depends on diverse economic, social, political & physical factors including the ability to
exploit natural resources, geographical location, human resources, demographic structure, industrial
development, ability to regulate its economy, trade strength, international relations, government policy,
events in its history, etc
, ❖ Nation-building = process by which a state government promotes nationality e.g through its education
system or media
❖ Fragile States Index = measure of the degree of resilience of a state - investors might want to know the
risk & vulnerability of a country before investing, however they may still risk investing due to natural
resources => economic decline, refugees per capita & IDPs, fatalities from conflict, political prisoners,
human flight & brain drain, uneven economic development, human rights, state legitimacy, security
apparatus indicator
❖ Pariah state = a nation considered to be an outcast in the international community due to their
government. Anyone who does not abide by international rules or refuses to cooperate with the
international community in wide areas must expect sanctions. E.g Belarus, Sudan, Kosovo, North
Korea, Myanmar, Syria, Sudan
❖ Sports Washing = the practice of individuals, groups, corporations, or governments using sports to
improve reputations tarnished by wrongdoing. E.g Qatar -2022 World Cup
❖ Malta [Europe - part of the EU] - bridge between Europe & Africa - route for smuggling
❖ Secession = transfer of part of a state’s area & population to another state
Sovereignty is the absolute authority that independent states exercise in the government of the land & people
in their territory. Sovereignty is sustained by 2 political processes:
● Internal sovereignty: a state has exclusive authority within its territory & no other state can intervene in
its domestic politics
● External sovereignty: a state can’t simply proclaim sovereignty, there has to be mutual recognition
among other sovereign states to ensure its territorial integrity and enables it to enter international
relations with other states
Territorial integrity is the principle that the defined territory of a state over which it has exclusive and legitimate
control is inviolable [shouldn’t be violated/challenged] [an important part of international law]. The preservation
of territorial integrity & sovereignty is therefore important in achieving and maintaining international security
and stability in the world.
Charter of UN - Article 2.4 “All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of
force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner.”
NORMS
● Derived from moral principles, behaviours which have developed overtime throughout the world.
They’re embedded in international law to be upheld by the state governments & their citizens
● These norms are based on principles set out in the Charter of the United Nation which outline the
universally accepted understanding of sovereignty & territorial integrity
● Includes state responsibilities of maintaining the global system of sovereign states with bounded
territories & protecting their citizens
● E.g of principles set out in the UN Charter which have become important norms for sovereignty &
territorial integrity include:
Article 2.1: The Organisation (the UN) is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members.
This means that all member states have equal right to determine their own form of government, which they can
choose WITHOUT outside influence. This chosen government is able to make authoritative decisions with
regard to people & resources within its defined territory but also has responsibility to respect the sovereignty of
other states
● The norm in Article 4.1 refers to ‘obligations of state’ and this includes promoting & developing friendly
external relations between nations AND internally, the obligation of a state is to protect its citizens
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