The Crises of 1399-1405
Introduction
• Psychology Richard II discussed by both medieval and modern historians, all aspects his personality, evaluating not only political
abilities, but speculating upon his mental stability and sexuality.
• Certainly, clear king easily able alienate those around him.
• His own eccentricities and his reign tested stability of medieval political system and concept loyalty to monarch to its limit.
To what extent was Richard II responsible for the crisis of 1399?
The reasons for Bolingbroke’s seizure of throne from Richard II
• Long Term Causes of 1399 Crisis: Father (Edward of Woodstock), often referred as ‘The Black Prince’, eldest son of
Edward III and highly successful warrior. 1376, Black Prince dies (apparently dysentery), followed to grave in 1377 by elderly
father. July 1377, 10-year-old Richard crowned king + Bishop Rochester (Thomas Brinton) preached sermon too noble
congregation, emphasising importance loyalty to child-king. Anxiety political community concerning dangers of boy on throne
evident.
➢ Clear governing kingdom initially done by others; caused tension amongst leading nobles (few precedents to guide him).
John Gaunt (King’s uncle) + Thomas of Woodstock (Duke Gloucester + youngest son), as well as no. knights in royal
household.
➢ Control decisions made in young King’s matter considerable concern (evidenced by parliamentary records period). Matter
especially sensitive given taxation in early years reign; obvious these endeavours going badly. Indeed 1377-81 saw no.
French raids on south coast England, increasing hostility towards King’s councillors.
• 1381: tensions overflowed into most famous + dramatic protests English history, ‘Peasants’ Revolt’. Violent attacks made
both local + national leaders (John Gaunt especially, blamed for imposition unpopular ‘poll tax’: each liable adult charged
same amount regardless wealth) + England’s lack success in war with France.
➢ Rebellion began Essex + spread rapidly, protestors converging on London + demanding speak direct to King (claiming
being deceived in advice by ‘evil councillors’.
➢ 14-year-old Richard acquitted himself in front thousands insurgents with surprising confidence, assuring he’d heard their
complaints + grant charters freedom + pardon for their revolt, persuading them disperse. Generosity not to last, within
fortnight, Richard witnessed executions no. rebels + formally revoked pardons, presumably on recommendation
councillors.
• Events 1381 not just result public hostility to poll tax; also, symptom growing class tension since first outbreak Black
Death 1347 (estimated killed 30-45% population). Psychological trauma no doubt devastating, peasant survivors often
found living conditions improved as result.
➢ Followed agricultural labour shortage, workers able demand higher wages (use greater wealth finance leisure time, better
food etc). New found social mobility fiercely resented by gentry + nobility: 1350, Statute of Labourers passed by
parliament, legally required wages be limited pre-Black Death levels, greatly restricted worker mobility. Bitterly resented
by workers: key underlying cause hostility towards ruling classes + ‘evil councillors’.
➢ Deeply frightening for political leaders + may contributed to Richard’s increasing hysterical emphasis absolute obedience
as his reign progressed.
• Marked coming age for young King, publicly shoed courage/ability deal with hostile crowd in front knights + nobles (many
of whom criticised for own cowardice during rebellion).
➢ Marriage Jan 1382 to Anne Bohemia, sister Wenceslas IV, Holy Roman Emperor (kingdoms medieval Germany) + King
Bohemia. Arranged by Michael de la Pole + Simon Burley, hope gaining Empire’s support against French in Hundred Years
War.
➢ Wenceslas drove hard bargain, no dowry (as was traditional), obliging Richard commit loan 80,000 florins. Political
perspective it was failure for England, public being sharply critical high-cost marriage + Richards extreme generosity to
Anne’s relations + servants. Hope military alliance between Empire + English against French failed materialise.
• Richard’s failings as an adult monarch: Over generosity those he personally favoured defining feature Richard’s reign
+ key cause fall from power. Emerging from minority, promoted no. favourites to important positions, but to extreme. He
overlooked + alienated senior nobles such as Uncle Thomas of Woodstock, felt excluded from King’s patronage + trust.
➢ William de la Pole (Duke of Suffolk 1385) + Robert de Vere (Earl of Oxford). De la Pole made Chancellor (1383) (honours
criticised by contemporary commentators). De Vere, despite widely disliked, received even greater royal generosity: new
rank ‘marquess’ created for him + made Duke of Ireland (1386), gave him status as King’s uncle.
• Level King’s financial generosity disproportionate + unsustainable, leading to royal debt. Commons regarded this as galling
(annoying) when being asked to vote through continued high taxes to sustain unsuccessful war with France in 1380’s.
• Tension increased as King/his circle didn’t seem personally committed to war (Richard of Bordeaux), fuelled suspicions
pro-French leanings.
• Never showed military capability or interest of father + grandfather. Hostility to untraditional actions, didn’t lead many
military expeditions himself. De la Pole advocated peace with France (whatever the practical merits policy), didn’t
enhance reputation Richard as warrior + angered King’s uncles.
➢ First campaign (1385) to Scotland, designed display coming age as warrior/monarch: King refused fight past Edinburgh +
bitter quarrel Richard + John of Gaunt. Contributed Gaunt’s growing feeling alienation + suspicion deliberate exclusion
, power by Richard + de Vere. Breach dangerous given Gaunt most senior noble in realm + extremely experienced politician
+ warrior. 1386: left England pursue claims to Castilian throne.
• The ‘Wonderful Parliament’ of 1386 and its consequences: Gaunt’s departure + threat invasion France led first
major challenge Richard’s leadership.
➢ Parliament demanded De la Pole’s be removed due to unpopularity, before grant taxation for defence realm (request
Richard scornfully + high-handedly denied, refusing even discuss matter).
➢ Meeting at Eltham Palace between Richard + no. leading noblemen who warned him if he refused attend parliament,
could dissolve itself after 40 days + no forthcoming taxation to help prepare defence for French threat.
➢ Richard outraged at attack on ‘royal prerogative’, foolishly threatened seek help from French.
➢ Retaliation: Thomas of Woodstock + Thomas Arundel (Bishop Ely) reminded Richard nobles by common consent depose
King who alienated his people (gruesome fate King’s great grandfather Edward II providing ex).
➢ Warning enough, Richard met with Parliament + forced watch favourite impeached (refused allow de la Pole’s
imprisonment).
• To Richard’s fury, Parliament demanded inquiry into royal finances by commission to control Exchequer + Great/Privy
Seals.
➢ Anger at infringements fuelled actions avoid commission by moving around the country, but also test country’s loyalty.
➢ Made de Vere Justice of Chester, began Richard’s particular association with area for military support + sought legal
advice (able to punish ‘traitors to crown’).
• Opponents presented King with appeal for 5 of his favourites (including de la Pole + de Vere) for treason: ‘Lords Appellant’
➢ Included Thomas of Woodstock + Henry Bolingbroke (Earl of Derby), only son of John Gaunt + Richard II’s cousin.
➢ Battle at Radcot Bridge (Oxfordshire) between Richard’s supporters from Chester (led by de Vere) and opponents. De
Vere’s troops defeated (fled abroad with de la Pole).
➢ Placed Richard at mercy of his critics. King obliged attend ‘Merciless Parliament’ of 1388, where favourites put on trial. De
la Pole + de Vere sentenced to death; Simon Burley immediately executed. Richard never forgave their deaths.
Bolingbroke’s involve meant subsequently Richard distrusted/disliked him.
• Consequences for Bolingbroke limited by return Gaunt to England (1389). Received warmly + Richard appeared rely on his
advice. Provided political stability to Kingdom, provided son with funds to travel (pilgrimage + tournaments): gained
international reputation as warrior, returning 1392. Served alongside father in Lords + advising King in great council.
• Richard’s downfall initiated when exiled Bolingbroke to France for 10 years (gave him 1,000 marks towards his costs) for
part in Lord Appellants rebellion. 6 months into exile, John Gaunt died (3rd Feb 1399). Richard chose not pardon
Bolingbroke + allow him attend father’s funeral. Instead cut off Bolingbroke’s inheritance + exiled for life.
Short Term Causes of Richard’s Usurpation
• Ireland – Trigger: Secure in belief he’d settled threat of Bolingbroke through extending exile to life + succeeded in
protecting own position, Richard made plans return to Ireland.
➢ Good reason to go: Irish not lived up to their promises, Art McMurrough (Irish King) recommended military activities +
Earl March killed trying to restore order in fighting near Kells. Clear need stop the rot + assembled army 5,000 men +
sailed, determined halt violence/avenge Earl March
➢ Fate intervened + events elsewhere conspired against Richard. Increasingly volatile quarrels between Duke of Orleans +
Duke of Burgandy coupled with Charles VI’s madness affected events in England.
➢ Being pro-war + against rapprochement with England, Orleans used brother’s incapacity to enter alliance with
Bolingbroke. Agreement facilitated by Burgundy’s absence French capital; each man pledged: ‘the friend of the others
friends; enemy of the others enemies’.
➢ Bolingbroke decided take advantage seemingly God-given opportunity reclaim his rights. May have been prompted by
Earl of Arundel, but given chance retrieve inheritance + take revenge Richard.
➢ Joining forces with powerful Northern lords such as Henry Percy + Earl of Westmorland, bringing men at arms, persuaded
him he had capacity challenge King.
➢ Situation exacerbated when news Bolingbroke’s return took weeks reach ‘keeper of realm’ (Duke of York), proved too late
(who himself eventually defected): Bolingbroke taken strategic positions such as Berkely Castle and King’s treasure at Holt
Castle in Wales, Richard’s support melted away (only returned 25th July) + Bolingbroke firmly in position to usurp.
• Tyranny/Increasingly Erratic: Some historians argued death Queen Anne may have had significant impact Richard’s
mental stability + after 1394 outlook towards nobility became suspicious + tyrannical.
➢ According to French Chronicler Jean Froissart, disquiet about religious + political ramifications associated with Richard’s
marriage with French princess. Not only France long-standing opponent, other side Great Schism + marriage implies closer
union with House of Valois. Influential historian T.F. Tout argues: ‘Richard’s desire for French match selfishly motivated’
(according to view, King wanted freedom taxation/scrutiny but more sinisterly, sought foreign armed support subdue own
subjects). Certainly, such a clause indicated insecurity Richard’s position + suspicions nobility.
➢ Parliament quashed proposal send English army fight support Charles VI’s territorial ambitions in Northern Italy. Richard
seen responsible introducing reckless policy appeasement as offer had been made result rash promise to future French
father-in-law
➢ Embarrassment followed by presentation petition, signed by Thomas Haxey (Clerk in Court of Common Pleas) complaining
about extravagance royal court, owing to no. people receipt King’s largesse. Richard believed attack on prerogative, Haxey
sentenced to death, reflected badly on Richard.
, ➢ According to chroniclers Adam of Usk and Monk of Evesham, growing anxiety at court generally. Richard’s use private
retinue of 700 archers from Cheshire, 300 of whom formed King’s personal bodyguard. Archers used to surround
parliament Sept 1397 to ensure conviction of Lords Appellant.
➢ Haxey’s point reinforced by Walsingham: ‘throughout realm, no prelate, no city, nor nay individual known to be wealthy,
could avoid loaning money to the King’: vainglorious side to character being reinforced.
➢ Author ‘Eulogium Historiarum’ recorded worrying new trend at court; whoever rank had to genuflect. Largely believed
through new French connection, Richard attempting gain support become Holy Roman Emperor. Grandiose behaviour of
that kind unlikely boost popularity/support amongst nobility. Walsingham: ‘Richard was so puffed up, 1397 onwards
began to behave even more loftily than usual’.
A Transition of Power
• Richard’s emissaries arrested in Chester + gave King no option but attempt broker agreement.
• Richard escorted to Flint Castle, Bolingbroke waiting, wearing full armour in office of High Steward (ranks as first of great
officers of state) of England, as if to show King now master + their positions reversed.
• Continued south to London, Richard locked in Tower; Bolingbroke’s backers clearly in the ascendant (usurpers to produce
rationalisation for next steps; removal King from legal throne).
• Bolingbroke partly stressed continuity he’d bring to throne + prime importance rescuing England from autocratic rule of King +
self-serving advisers.
• Adam of Usk: Richard’s record investigated by Bolingbroke’s followers, sufficient grounds depose him on evidence: ‘perjuries,
sodomitical acts, dispossession of his subjects, reduction of his people to servitude, lack of reason and incapacity to rule’. Total
39 accusations made (based on understanding he’d broken coronation oath, prefer ‘rule to own arbitrary rule’ instead of
upholding laws of country).
• Shakespeare: ‘an angry and frustrated Richard, washing away his balm with his own tears’ (reference to oil anointed during
coronation ceremony).
Why was Bolingbroke able to seize the throne in 1399?
• Initially, when Bolingbroke invaded, claimed simply seeking regain his Lancastrian lands. Certainly, Richard’s action in
disinheriting Bolingbroke widely criticised within England + on continent. Bolingbroke fairly certain reasonable levels support in
his endeavours.
• Remains unclear if only aim, or how quickly motivation changed to one of seeking to depose king. Motivations remain unclear +
possible revenge for his treatment one factor.
• Must also been very aware of risk leaving Richard in power take revenge upon him later, as occurred with other lords appellant
1397.
• Many others willing support his claim: warmly received in many areas (may highlight growing discontent at Richard’s rule), +
may been opportunistic in exploitation of this to further his dynastic ambitions. N. Saul: ‘ambition fed by the heady brew of
popular support, but to some extent acting defensively as he knew Richard as vengeful + untrustworthy’… ‘self-preservation
rather than vaulting ambition main spur to his action’.
• N. Saul also argues: ‘he wanted his agents to come up with a suitable precedent for his actions, making a wholly illegitimate act
appear as nearly legitimate as possible… why he ordered the searches of the chronicles, being only too conscious of himself’.
• Clear absence in Ireland determining factor, but Duke York willing to support usurper rather than King damning indictment
Richard’s unpopularity amongst nobleman. Themselves doubtless frightened by King’s growing aloofness + apparent desire
avenge himself on those guilty of past affronts.
• Historians such as Nigel Saul + Caroline Barron particularly emphasised significance King’s increasingly tyrannical behaviour in
relation to property ownership, with Richard’s decision disinherit Bolingbroke seen as crowning example willingness ignore
convention + legal restraint to seize noble’s land without just cause.
How significant was Bolingbroke’s usurpation of the throne in relation to the problems of his early reign?
Henry IV and the problems arising from his behaviour in 1399
Accusations against Richard II
• Amicable agreement Richard admitting ‘utterly inadequate’ and he gave up throne ‘willingly’ unlikely, other sources varying
reliability suggest Richard either furious or heartbroken by forced abdication.
• Widespread knowledge Richard forcibly removed from throne serious problem stability new reign. Important new regime
carefully stage managed + legally supported takeover in broadest possible terms.
• Chronicler Adam of Usk, probably member Archbishop Arundel’s entourage until Arundel went exile with Henry Bolingbroke
(1398). Upon invasion, Usk supported Lancastrian side + part of committee that Henry appointed determine legal justifications
for change in ruler. According to account, committee justified deposition on wide-ranging grounds of Richard’s immoral rule,
citing offences including sacrilege, perjury, sodomy, incompetence, lack ability + greed.
• Accordingly, to committee, meant deposition permitted by canon law, due to immorality Richard’s rule. 39 accusations against
Richard read at Henry IV’s first parliament, provided comprehensive attack on government during reign:
➢ Imposition weighty/unnecessary taxes for personal advantage
, ➢ Richard’s treatment Lords Appellant, particular emphasis pardoned offences but continued harbour resentment,
culminating actions 1397.
➢ Unlawful/violent behaviour Richard’s Cheshire retinue
➢ Unjust/unmerciful treatment Henry Bolingbroke
➢ Royal intervention selection local officers making them accountable to King
➢ Failing pay back loans.
➢ Infringing on rights of church: interfering cases ecclesiastical court
➢ Not upholding traditional rules of the realm.
➢ Using false accusations treason as method raising money
➢ Ignoring advice council, maintaining arrogant attitude when nobles advised him: ‘frequently rebuked, reprimanded,
suddenly + so bitterly’.
➢ Removing crown jewels England + taking Ireland on campaign
➢ Seizing land from subjects without good reason + imprisoning without fair trial.
• Perhaps charge best captured reason for Richard’s downfall was that he was so changeable that no one could trust him.
• While accusations against Richard clearly written by those hostile to him + agenda placing Henry on throne, seems fairly clear
leaving his subjects state continual uncertainty defining characteristic reign + endangered terror + dislike among many leading
subjects, contributing substantially to downfall.
• Comprehensive critique Richard’s rule probably political necessity in tense situation 1399; essence, important there was
overwhelming reason remove monarch, as such course action challenged fundamental idea hereditary monarch ordained by
God.
• Cast long shadow over reign Bolingbroke and heir, provided very public precedent for King be removed because unpopular +
incompetent.
• Unspoken implication from now on King’s conduct, lay open to criticism + potential judgement subjects. Clear to all nobles that
unpopular king ousted by ‘over-mighty subject’ provided sufficient military.
Justifications Henry Bolingbroke becoming King
• First parliament, stated: ‘God in his grace has sent me…which realm was at point of ruin for lack governance + destruction good
laws’. Reference royal lineage (‘blood from good lord King Henry III’) deliberately vague; credentials in this regard shaky. Right
primogeniture, Edmund Mortimer arguably next line.
• Many preferred support Henry: Mortimer 8 years old, proven warrior + substantial retinue (group advisers); rather than entrust
fate kingdom another child-king. ‘Help of my kin and my friends’ thinly veiled reference too strong military support (dangerous
way claim throne). In essence 1399 onwards, Henry made kingship legally conditional on competence/military might.
• Henry aware others willing to use Mortimer as figurehead to revolt. Particular risk as Mortimer family one of most powerful
marcher families + considerable support Wales (descended from Llywelyn – 13th century prince of Gwynedd). Threat made
greater as early 15th century, Wales hotbed insurrection against crown.
• Henry kept close eye on boy, made him royal ward + ensuring lived mainly at Windsor. 1402, when King went fight in Wales,
youths moved to Berkhamsted Castle under supervision loyal Lancastrian: Sir Hugh Waterton. Henry proved leader some
foresight as same year the uncle (Sir Edmund IV Mortimer) captured by Welsh Prince/rebel leader Owain Glyndwr + switched
loyalty to Welsh (Dec), announcing Henry IV no claim to throne + nephew rightful heir.
• N. Saul: ‘Henry’s claim bore all hallmarks of compromise’. ‘3/4’s of a century earlier, the French monarchy successfully applied
doctrine of extinction of direct line Capetians…also be argued Henry only following continental practice doing same’.
Henry’s early decision making
• Invested oldest son, Henry, as Prince of Wales to ensure succession. Guarantee heir important method strengthening claim
provide realm newfound stability.
• Sought break away Richard’s more unpopular policies: revoke decisions taken 1397-98 parliament + restoring 1396.
• No doubt bid popularity, first parliament promised, owing to extensive private landholdings, able ‘live of his own’ + only
request taxation times war. Financial undertaking clear reference Richard’s frequent/unpopular requests taxation + frequent
criticism royal expenditure. Politically very useful + increased support.
• Recognising lack mercy key criticisms Richard, Henry wisely sought conciliation with Richard II’s erstwhile supporters, showing
clemency provided showed willingness support new regime. This expedient as ensured greater administrative/political stability
at time turmoil + prevented widespread backlash against usurper early reign.
The first stirrings of revolt and the death of Richard in 1400
• January 1400, ‘Epiphany Rising’, no. diehard Ricardians (notably Earls Huntingdon, Kent, Salisbury + Sir Thomas Despenser)
planned murder Henry/sons at traditional Christmas Windsor revelry. Plot failed; Henry forewarned + time to escape to
London. Plan didn’t gain popular support; no. rebels killed by locals before found + executed. Indicated Bolingbroke’s criticisms
Richard clearly exaggerated 1399, nonetheless genuine + widespread dislike of deposed King, increasing stability of throne.
• Leaders 1400 rebellion all died, but actions may have sealed fate Richard (imprisoned Pontefract Castle). While previous King
lived, clear would provide focal point rebellion for those dissatisfied Henry. 1400 Richard II died.
➢ Most likely explanation murdered on King’s orders. New regime recognised importance publicising his death to prevent
pretenders causing unrest by claiming throne (face publicly displayed London; prevent rumours substitution).
