Notes de cours
Notes Sexual Offending, Prostitution and Human Trafficking
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Sexual Offending, Prostitution and HumanTrafficking – NOTES 2023-2024
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................1
1. Introduction ....................................................................................................................4
Aim and phenomena selected ..............................................................................................4
Perspectives & dimensions ..................................................................................................5
Expectations (competences) ................................................................................................7
Teaching methods................................................................................................................8
Evaluation ...........................................................................................................................9
Q&A ....................................................................................................................................9
2. Trafficking in human beings ............................................................................................ 10
Legal approaches .............................................................................................................. 10
Readings ........................................................................................................................... 11
Gender-neutral criminal law approach ................................................................................ 13
Current mainstream criminal law definition ........................................................................ 14
‘knowing use’ of services offered by THB victims ................................................................. 17
Liability legal persons......................................................................................................... 21
International cooperation in criminal matters...................................................................... 22
Trafficking vs smuggling...................................................................................................... 24
THB & migration policy ....................................................................................................... 24
Smuggling, carrier liability, false documents ....................................................................... 25
Labour and social security law perspective ......................................................................... 27
Intra-migration – free movement, including for work ............................................................ 29
Intra-migration – posting of workers .................................................................................... 29
Trafficking in human beings – policies ................................................................................. 30
Phenomenon & dynamics – readings & discussion .............................................................. 36
3. Prostitution and sex work ............................................................................................... 36
Legal approaches & policies / Readings .............................................................................. 36
Structure ........................................................................................................................... 37
Legal instruments / UN....................................................................................................... 38
Policy documents / CoE & EU ............................................................................................. 41
Different frames / victim frame ........................................................................................... 43
1
, Different frames / anti-social order frame............................................................................ 44
Different frames / agency frame .......................................................................................... 44
Domestic/municipal approaches/models ........................................................................... 45
Prevention THB & nuisance in prostitution sector ................................................................ 47
(Self) regulation bona fide prostitution market..................................................................... 49
ISO 69 ............................................................................................................................... 50
Legalization or self-regulation via quality standards............................................................. 52
Phenomenon & dynamics / readings ................................................................................... 53
4. Child sexual abuse & abuse of power or authority ........................................................... 54
Readings ........................................................................................................................... 54
Structure ........................................................................................................................... 54
General legal framework / CoE & EU ................................................................................... 55
Age of sexual consent / definitions...................................................................................... 56
Age of sexual consent / single/multi-stage system............................................................... 59
Child sexual abuse............................................................................................................. 60
Extra-territorial jurisdiction ................................................................................................. 61
Statutes of limitation / extension ........................................................................................ 63
Non-prior conviction .......................................................................................................... 64
Intrafamilial abuse / denial ................................................................................................. 67
Extrafamilial sexual abuse .................................................................................................. 70
5. Child sexual exploitation, CSAM & grooming ................................................................... 71
Readings ........................................................................................................................... 71
Structure ........................................................................................................................... 73
Legal approaches .............................................................................................................. 73
Sexual exploitation of children / definitions ......................................................................... 74
Child sex tourism (CST) ...................................................................................................... 77
Child sexual abuse material (CSAM) ................................................................................... 80
Role of INTERPOL & EUROPOL ........................................................................................... 85
Notice & take-down procedures ......................................................................................... 87
Private detection and reporting / Voluntary.......................................................................... 88
Private detection and reporting / Mandatory ........................................................................ 91
Grooming / definitions........................................................................................................ 92
Grooming/ (internet) behaviour........................................................................................... 93
6. Rape, sexual assault & sexual harassment ...................................................................... 94
Readings ........................................................................................................................... 94
Structure ........................................................................................................................... 96
2
, European sourcebook definition / rape ............................................................................... 97
European sourcebook definition / sexual assault................................................................. 98
ECtHR 4 December 2003, M.C./Bulgaria ............................................................................. 99
Istanbul convention (CoE, 2011) ....................................................................................... 100
EU legal instruments ........................................................................................................ 102
Rape myths and reporting / validity beyond rape................................................................ 105
Consent .......................................................................................................................... 106
Sexual harassment .......................................................................................................... 108
Virtual rape: rape or sexual harassment? .......................................................................... 109
7. Pornography, exhibitionism & voyeurism ....................................................................... 110
Readings ......................................................................................................................... 110
Structure ......................................................................................................................... 112
Liberalism & pornography................................................................................................. 112
Role of pornography & sexual scripts ................................................................................ 116
Gender (in)equality .......................................................................................................... 118
Young people and sexualized media / sexting .................................................................... 119
Exhibitionism ................................................................................................................... 120
Voyeurism / definition ...................................................................................................... 122
Voyeurism / hypotheses ................................................................................................... 123
‘Revenge porn’ / definitions & damage .............................................................................. 124
‘Revenge porn’ / Remedies ............................................................................................... 125
8. Bestiality, animal porn, BDSM & necrophilia .................................................................. 127
Readings ......................................................................................................................... 127
Structure ......................................................................................................................... 127
Bestiality & Animal porn ................................................................................................... 128
BDSM .............................................................................................................................. 129
Necrophilia...................................................................................................................... 130
9. AI & robots................................................................................................................... 131
Readings ......................................................................................................................... 132
Artificial intelligence & robots ........................................................................................... 132
Artificial intelligence & robots / sexual offences ................................................................ 133
Sample exam questions ................................................................................................... 136
3
, 1. Introduction
Aim and phenomena selected
Aim
- to gain a proper, nuanced and multi-perspective understanding of the causes,
mechanisms, dynamics and complexity of a cluster of specific (crime) phenomena, i.e.
sexual offending, prostitution and human trafficking, as well as of their interrelations and
of societal and (criminal) policy reactions thereto
Aim of the course = essentially to get a proper, but also nuanced understanding of different things.
Also a multi-perspective understanding.
Professor is also committed to give its own perspective. Which is a perspective. But always
balanced with other perspectives. Nice, because there is no truth on the things discussed.
Professor expects us to come with un underpinned understanding of things, a proper insight, a
documented insight, based on literature and studying.
If our position is reasoned, but not corresponding to the perspective of the professor, that is
entirely fine. That is the goal of the course: get an own perspective on the things discussed.
issues (phenomena) selected | modules
Different phenomena, some labeled as ‘crime’.
In the different spheres indicated: sexual offending, prostitution and human trafficking.
We are not only going to study the phenomena, but also the causes and mechanisms involved,
the dynamics, because phenomena change overtime and quite often, they are very complex,
because we struggle with our own morality, with certain theories about harm and when behavior
ought to be criminalized, or ought not. Sometimes it is difficult.
So one of the goals the professor also has is that this auditorium is a safe space to intervene and
declare your own perspective. Most of students feel safe enough to bring their own perspective.
Some of the phenomena are interrelated. → ex. trafficking in human beings and prostitution.
Sometimes we do have trafficking-like situations in the sex industry. This doesn’t mean that the
sex industry or sex work is exploitative or comes down to trafficking in human beings. but some
radical feminist groups are trying to present things like every form of sex work is exploitative per
se, which the professor finds extremely un-feminist itself.
We will also look at the reactions. → ex. societal reactions. There may be societal taboo about
certain things (ex. On bestiality).
Topics:
- trafficking in human beings
o literature:
▪ legal approaches and policies
▪ phenomenon and dynamics
- prostitution
o literature:
4
, ▪ legal approaches and policies
▪ phenomenon and dynamics
- child sexual abuse & abuse of power or authority
- sexual exploitation of children, CSAM/CSEM & grooming
CSAM = child sexual abuse material
CSEM = child sexual exploitation material
Terms are used in interchangeable way.
CSAM becomes the predominant one right now.
We used to speak about ‘child porn’. And legal documents still speak about ‘child porn’. But this
is a terminology we want to push to the background (see later).
- rape, sexual assault & sexual harassment
There is a lot of this.
Focus on adults.
Not on women only, but predominantly affecting women. Because of heteronormative roles and
perspectives.
- bestiality & animal porn, BDSM & necrophilia
A bit more uncommon.
- pornography, exhibitionism, voyeurism
A bit more common.
- AI & robots
The future.
Perspectives & dimensions
legal dimension
- domestic, European, international and comparative criminal, administrative/immigration,
social and extraterritorial jurisdiction law
Focus?
- Not on domestic level: only occasionally, but it is not a course of domestic law
- Predominantly focus on international levels: UN, EU and Council of Europe. Because to a
larger extent they impact or legal reality. Also nice, because it is the binding factor between
all students in the course.
It may be criminal law.
- Because it is that branch of the law that intervenes whenever society fails to come up with
something better.
- Professor will force us to be very critical to when we criminalize behavior and whether it is
the right step. Because it is an ultimate step we take. We define certain behavior as
punishable. So we draw a moral line and we not only draw the line, we put that moral line
5
, into the law. Moral line because in very little instances, it is just a moral line. As a scientist
and penalist, the professor doesn’t become happy when there is nothing more to criminal
law than moralism. When lawmakers make criminal law, often it is based on moralism,
such as bestiality.
Theoretical approaches
- Ex. Harm principle: when certain behavior is harming certain individuals. When there is
evidence that certain behavior causes harm, this may be a good ground to criminalize
behavior.
- = balancing exercise.
- But sometimes, ex. Even at the exam, when you say for you ‘legal moralism’ in this case is
sufficient, then that is fine for the professor. Don’t pretend something else is also a good
reason.
Administrative and immigration law
- Human trafficking → smuggling
- Asylum → migration law
Social law
- It matters!
- Ex. Is prostitution work as other work? Protection under social law and working law?
- Ex. Is sex trafficking like slavery? Where is the line exactly?
prevention strategies and societal and (criminal) policy reactions
phenomenological and epidemiological data
In addition to legal prevention strategies and societal and policy reactions, we will also study the
evidence, the lived realities of people, the truth. But very many sources are biased, so we will try
to get as close to the truth as possible.
victim perspective
Look into victim perspectives.
offender perspective
What triggers sexual abuse?
Sometimes psychological spheres and classifications.
Multidisciplinary approach
children’s rights perspective
Will also be present
Because two modules on children
1/ we need to protect children against sexual abuse, yes!
2/ but children are also allowed sexuality, no? they are human beings after all
We treat children to much as ‘not yet human beings’.
6
,Ex. Why are children not allowed to labor? For other people it is a human right. We force them onto
school banks. Isn’t that weird?
moral dimension: sexuality morality and attitudes
economic dimension: demand and supply (elasticity) in the sexual services market, …
Sometimes push and pull factors
corporate dimension: corporate and chain responsibility, sectoral self-regulation
Corporate: sometimes companies are involved. Ex. In exploitation
gender and gay dimensions
migration perspective: international and EU third country national migration, free movement EU
European and international policy level and actor perspective
- EU (Council, EC, EP, Europol, etc.), Council of Europe, OSCE, ILO, UN
ILO = international labor organization
OSCE = organization for security and co-operation in Europe
UN = united nations
multi-actor perspective
- police, labor and social inspection services, prosecution services, immigration services,
border guards, tax administrations, city administrations, neighborhoods, NGO’s, health
and welfare sector
Different actors and perspectives
Non-executive list
Ex. Neighbors
Ex. The police
Ex. The perspective of the neighbor of a brothel Is different than the perspective of the sex worker
itself.
Expectations (competences)
Expectations are as follows:
- understand/unveil the interaction between legal/regulatory frameworks and evaluative,
normative and attitudinal frameworks/discourses regarding sexuality, sexual behavior and
exploitation
Understand the interaction between the legal and regulatory frameworks.
- independently consult, analyse and critically/scientifically assess sources, literature and
research data
Through the paper
On 10/20
7
,On any topic around sexuality you like to tackle.
- apply knowledge of the European and international institutional and policy development
context of criminology and criminal justice when addressing sexual offending, prostitution
and human trafficking and reactions thereto
Also be able to apply the knowledge you gathered through the course.
- address sexual offending, prostitution and human trafficking multi-dimensionally, multi-
disciplinary, through multiple (theoretical) frames and from a multi-actor perspective
Multi-dimensional character: Also one of the competences of the course.
Multi-disciplinary
Multiple frames: Different theoretical lenses will be offered: gender-based, harm-based…
Multi-actor perspective: Ex. The perspective of the neighbor of a brothel Is different than the
perspective of the sex worker working in the brothel itself.
- apply in-depth knowledge of the phenomena concerned (and reactions thereto) in
scientific research
Application of all this in your own scientific research
- understand and analyse current debates and issues regarding sexual offending,
prostitution and human trafficking crime (and reactions thereto)
Be able to understand contemporary debates, that you can analyze them…
- critically approach sexual offending, prostitution and human trafficking (and reactions
thereto) through research and the application of theory
… that you can critically approach the main concerns in research,
- articulate a scientifically-reasoned opinion about sexual offending, prostitution and
human trafficking (and reactions thereto) that pays due attention to ethical, cultural and
legal issues
… that you build the ability to articulate a scientifically-reasoned opinion.
Ex. On the exam!
- think independently and critically about societal and (criminal) policy reactions to the
phenomena of sexual offending, prostitution and human trafficking
- write a clear report on the results of (own) scientific research and/or personal views
- respect cultural differences, pluralism, gender and ethical standards
During the course
Teaching methods
teaching methods
- integration seminar
o building on and aiming at integrating knowledge that was acquired during a range
of courses
8
, o (limited) introduction to the topic and literature
o enabling for/focused on group discussion
- guided self-study
o course materials organized per module
o mandatory readings [ahead of live sessions] | courtesy: version for print
o optional readings as a courtesy (inspiration for papers, discretionary knowledge
consolidation, broadening & deepening)
Never questions on literature, or things we haven’t tackled in class.
But you have to read the black-lettered literature
- self-reliant study activities
o research: individual or group (4 students max) paper
o 3000 words/person, excluding footnotes and reference list or bibliography
Evaluation
evaluation
- periodic (50%)
o this year: written exam with short-answer questions and open questions,
balancing legal and non-legal questions
o open questions envisage testing students’ understanding and analytical and
interpretational skills regarding the causes, mechanisms, dynamics, complexity
and interrelations of the phenomena concerned and regarding societal and
(criminal) policy reactions thereto
o see sample questions
o legal instruments for use during exam: bespoke reader
o non-annotated bilingual translation dictionary allowed
- non-periodic (50%)
o research paper | separate information session
- participation in both non-periodic and periodic evaluation is mandatory
o otherwise, students will be declared “failed”, meaning that if the final score is ten
or more (out of twenty), this score will be reduced to the highest non-pass grade
reader?
- 1000 pages
- With mandatory readings = ‘black-lettered literature’
Legal texts?
- Allowed to bring these texts to the exam. Allowed to do so.
- Collected in a document on Ufora.
- In addition to the reader.
Q&A
Exam?
- Legal and non-legal questions
- Open and non-open questions
9
, Sample exam on Ufora
- Ex. Give your reasoned opinion
o ‘sollicitation of children’ is the legal term for ‘grooming’
o Use legal text you have with you.
- Ex. Scatch radical feminist perspective on 1/ (extreme) porn and 2/ sex work AND give your
own reasoned opinion on these two. Give perspectives on why you find it harmless,
outdated, modern… also indicate where and why it differs from the radical feminist
perspective.
- Ex. Explain: Jany judgment (on prostitution and sex work)
- Ex. Explain: Prosuming on social network sites
o ‘prosuming’ = consuming and producing at the same time
2. Trafficking in human beings
Legal approaches
Principal legal instruments
Three hard law instruments
- Protocol to Palermo convention
- CoE: Warsaw convention
- EU: EU directive, with an update that is not published nor applicable yet.
Three levels: UN, COE and EU
- UN
o 2000 Trafficking Protocol to UN TOC Convention
o 2000 Smuggling Protocol to UN TOC Convention
o 1950 Convention on THB and exploitation prostitution
In 2000, at the level of the UN, we witnessed the conclusion of two protocols to the Palermo
Convention on trans-national organized crime. Several protocols, two of them related to
‘trafficking in human beings’ and ‘smuggling of persons’.
By the mere fact that the UN comes with two separate proposals for smuggling and trafficking,
you should forever recall that trafficking is not the same as smuggling.
However on the news: politicians are often saying that they are making access to the EU more
difficult to make sure that there is no exploitation by traffickers of poor migrants. They should
phrase it as: ‘we are shutting the door for migrants’. You have to see through this.
Two separate protocols, but the one that matters most for this course is the ‘trafficking protocol’!
Because it is the most recent (hard-lettered) document of the UN about trafficking in human
beings.
1950 convention will be relevant when we discuss sex work. Rights possession of sex workers.
(see later)
- CoE
o 2005 Warsaw Convention on THB
10
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