The European Union: Politics and Policies
Europese Politiek – KUL – 2022/2023 – Prof. Wouter Wolfs
Introduction
The EU has been prized and criticized since its beginning.
➔ It has been prized because:
o The European experiment brought peace.
o Revitalized the European marketplace.
o Its changing definition of Europe.
o And altering the global balance of power.
➔ It has been criticized because;
o There is unemployment.
o Problems with productivity.
o Labour market restrictions.
o A declining and ageing population.
o Undermining the sovereignty of states.
o Sullying the quality of European democracy.
• European commission
o Administrative and executive arm of the EU.
o Drafts new laws.
o Oversees the laws execution Manages the EU budget
• The council of ministers
o Intergovernmental body comprising of ministers from each member state.
o Shares power with the European parliament.
o Adopts new laws.
• European parliament
o Represents the interests of the European voters.
o Shares power with the council of ministers.
o Adopts new laws.
• The European court of justice
o EU’s constitutional court.
o Interpreting the treaties.
o Issuing judgments on cases involving parties in a dispute over EU law.
o Issuing rulings in cases in national courts where the EU law is at stake.
,P ART 1: HISTORY
Chapter 1: what is the European Union?
Chapter overview
The EU is a unique political arrangement that defies easy definition or categorization and
defies orthodox ideas about politics and government.
- Much more than a conventional international organization.
- Less than a European superstate.
- The EU institutions were seen as less important than the national government, but
the EU is now increasingly seen as a political system in its own right.
The role of the state
Ben Rosamond: four possible approaches to the study of the EU.
1) EU as an international organization.
2) EU as an example of regionalism in the global economic system.
3) EU as an example of the dynamics of policy making.
4) EU as a unique organization that emerged out of a unique set of circumstances.
➔ Forgot an important fifth option:
5) EU as a political system on it’s own right.
A state = a political-legal unit defined by territory and by laws based on an institutional basis
A nation = a group of people defined by shared identity or culture based on language,
ethnicity, religion, etc.
→ Difference nation & ethnic group:
o Ethnic group = a group of people who share a heritage, common language,
culture (often including religion) and can discuss shared ancestry
o Nations (more political) = unified by a sense of purpose to control the
territory that the members of the group believe to be theirs.
A nation-state = sovereign states in which a majority of the population is united based on
factors that define a nation
How we approach the EU depends on how we think about the role of the state.
Order of Westphalia (1648): international state system.
➔ 4 main characteristics:
o Fixed and populated territory.
o Possibility to impose authority over that territory.
o Legally and politically independent.
o Recognized by its people and by other states.
The state has many critics:
• Dividing humans.
• Encouraging people to place sectional interest above the broader interest of
humanity.
, • Nationalism.
o Can lead to internal stability, national superiority, racism, war, …
Criticism contributed to the growth of international cooperation in the 20th century,
especially after 1945. Seeking to reduce tensions and promote cooperations, states signed
international treaties, reduced trade barriers, worked together on shared problems and
formed a networl of international organizations (IO’s).
International organizations (IO’s) = bodies that set up to promote cooperation between or
among states, based on the principles of voluntary cooperation, communal management
and shared interests.
➔ Two categories:
o International nongovernmental organizations: their members are individuals
or the representatives of private associations.
o Intergovernmental organizations (IGOs): their members are states and their
goal is to promote cooperation among state governments.
▪ Ex. United Nations
Integration
= transfer by states of (parts of) sovereignty.
= pooling of authority in specific policy areas, and the creation of common institutions with
restricted powers (delegation).
≠ the total surrender of their own separate legal, political, economic, social and national
identities (≈ assimilation).
How did the EU evolve?
Collaboration = Integration =
member states decide to achieve certain the authority to take decisions is
goals together by taking joint measures, but transferred to a higher (supra-) national
the member states retain authority over the level, so there is a transfer of competences
specific policy domain from the member states to the EU level
Theory of European integration = explanation on why states decided to transfer more and
more authority to the European level and to supranational institutions.
Two competing theories in international relations (= explanations for relations between
states):
• Realism
o World is defined by anarchy, international relations are chaotic, and main
motivation of states is ensure survival, security, sovereignty
o Core actors in international relations = states (no “world government”)
o States are unitary actors that act rationally out of self-interest (zero-sum
games)
o Core concept = power
, • Liberalism
o International relations is more than survival, more than power, collaboration
is possible
o Other actors in addition to states = international organizations (that promote
further collaboration and prevent freeriding)
o States can go beyond self-interest, collaboration can lead to positive-sum
games
o Core concept = values (freedom, democracy, human rights)
Other theories:
• Functionalism (Mitrany) (= normative)
o Nationalism = source of conflict.
o Peace trough collaboration between states built on common interests.
o International agencies that fulfil specific functional needs.
o Economic and financial ties precede political ties.
o “Integration by stealth / “sneak up on peace”: Integration in noncontroversial
fields encourages collaboration in other fields.
• Neofunctionalism (Haas and Lindberg; 1950s-1960s):
o Part of the “liberal school of IR”
o Spill-over effect = a given action, related to a specific goal, creates a situation
in which the original goal can be assured only by taking further actions, which
in turn create a further condition and a need for more, and so forth.
o Different types of spill-over:
▪ Functional spill-over: economies are so interconnected that if states
integrate one sector of their economies it will lead to the integration
of other sectors.
▪ Political spill-over: once different functional sectors are integrated,
interest groups will switch from trying to influence national
governments to trying to influence regional institutions, which will
encourage their attempt to win new powers for theirselves.
▪ Technical spill-over: disparities in standards will cause states to rise
(or sink) to the level of those with the tightest (or loosest) regulations.
▪ Cultural spill-over
▪ Geographical spill-over
o European integration = deterministic process (“expansive logic”)
o European integration = autonomous process (not a result of deliberate
strategies of member states)
o Driving forces = non-state actors:
▪ Companies
▪ Trade unions
▪ Political parties
▪ EU institutions (Commission, European Court of Justice)
o BUT: not explanation for stagnation European integration 1960s
, • Intergovernmentalism (Andrej Moravcsik, 1960s-1970s)
o Part of the “Realist School of IR”
o Logic of diversity = in areas of key importance to the national interest,
nations prefer the certainty, or the self-controlled uncertainty, of national
self-reliance, to the uncontrolled uncertainty of untested blunder (Hoffmann,
1966: 882)
o Driving force: (heads of state and government) of nation states
o European integration: zero-sum game = result of the negotiations between
the member states
o “European integration = two-level game in three stages”:
1) There are national preferences and interests in the member states
determined by the internal dynamics in the state (role of pressure
groups) (= national level)
2) The manifestation/realization of integration depends on the relative
power of the member states (= EU level)
3) Institutionalisation: EU institutions are useful to execute/implement
and enforce deals between member states (to solve coordination
problems)
What has the EU become?
Intergovernmentalism Supranationalism
• Governments and member states • Member states lose control over
keep control over decision-making decision-making to the benefit of EU
in the EU (inter-governmental = institutions, which operate and
between governments) decide relatively autonomously
• Focal point of decision-making is (supra-national = above national
(European) Council level)
• Decisions taken by unanimity (veto) • Important role for European
• Implementation and control by Parliament, Commission, Court of
member states Justice, European Central Bank
→ “intergovernmental method” • Decision taken by majority
• Implementation and control by
Commission and Court of Justice
→ “Community Method”
• The European Union as a political system (comparative politics)
o Can be compared to national political system
o Democracy = system of checks and balances
▪ Legislative Branch:
• European Parliament
• Council of Ministers
▪ Executive Branch:
• European Commission
• (+ Member states)
▪ Judicial Branch
• European Court of Justice
, • EU = more than just “government” = governance
o Legislation and policy is made by complex interaction of set of different actors
(MS governments, EU institutions, interest groups)
o Even “multi-level governance”: power is shared by actors at European,
national, subnational, and local level
o Héritier (2002): “every mode of political steering involving public and private
actors, including traditional modes of government and different types of
steering from hierarchical imposition to sheer information measures”
o + non-state actors
o Pluralism of decision-making
o EU = more than 1 level
o Less political, stronger focus on solving problems
o BUT: questions of legitimacy and accountability → Democratic deficit
Federalism Confederalism
= a common feature is the combination of • Also at least two levels of decision-
shared-rule and regional self-rule within a making
single political system: • BUT: power rests with the
• At least two levels of decision- independent states, the central
making; both are autonomous, government derives authority from
neither is subordinate to the other these states, and there is no direct
• Each has a number of policy link between the central
domains and financial resources government and its citizens
• Subnational entities are represented • ( in a federal system, power is
at the federal level divided between national and
• Ex. USA (sub)national levels, both which
exercise control over AND are
directly accountable to citizens)
• Ex. Germany
Is the European Union a federal system?
- System of EU laws next to system(s) of national laws (with a separate European Court
of Justice) (= two levels of decision-making)
- Division of competences in treaties (= policy domains)
- Directly elected European Parliament (= link with citizens)
- Member states are represented at EU level in Council (= subnational representation)
- Common Executive body with delegated authority
- Common EU budget (= resources) and common currency
Is the European Union a confederal system?
- Member states have transferred authority to EU institutions, BUT retain bulk of
power of negotiation and bargaining
- Member states can take away authority from EU level / institutions through treaty
revisions
- Member states are still distinct units with separate identities, armies and police
forces
, - EU is a voluntary association (e.g. Brexit)
- No European government in the sense of directly-elected leaders
Questions to consider
• EU = international organisation?
o YES: members are nation states, membership is voluntary, strive for
consensus
o NO: transfer of sovereignty to EU, autonomy and decision-making power of
EU actors, intensity & scope of policy (impact day-to-day lives)
• EU = state?
o YES: internationally recognized boundaries, member states subjected to EU
laws, influence over daily lives, common currency and symbols
o NO: no monopoly over violence (no police forces, no army), no taxes (?)
P ART 2: INSTITUTIONS
→ NED
Chapter 2: de Europese Commissie
Chapter overview
- De EC is de uitvoerende bureaucratische arm van de EU.
- Verantwoordelijk voor:
o Maken van nieuwe wetten en beleid en het toezien op de uitvoering ervan.
o EU-budget beheren.
o De EU vertegenwoordigen in internationale bijeenkomsten.
o Het bevorderen van de belangen van de EU.
- Bestaat uit een college van benoemde commissarissen en duizenden fulltime
bureaucraten.
- De meest zichtbare EU-instelling.
- Kritieken:
o Niet verkozen.
o Weinig publieke verantwoording.
o Elite en afstandelijke bureaucratie.
- Echter: krijgt algemene richtingsaanwijzingen van de intergouvernementele Europese
Raad en de uiteindelijke beslissingen over wetten en beleid liggen bij de ER en het EP.
Evolutie
- Ontstaan: Hoge Autoriteit voor Europese Gemeenschap voor Kolen en Staal (EGKS).
o Luxemburg.
o 9 leden.
o Controle door Speciale Raad van Ministers en een Gemeenschappelijke
Vergadering.
- Verdragen van Rome: Commissie voor de Europese Economische Gemeenschap
(EEG) en Euratom.
, - Verdrag van Lissabon: voorstel om het aantal commissarissen van één commissaris
per lidstaat te reduceren naar 1/3de van het aantal lidstaten (Bv. 30 lidstaten dus 20
commissarissen).
- Toch vandaag: één commissaris per lidstaat: 27 in totaal.
Structuur
Hoofdkwartier van de EC in Brussel.
Vijf hoofdelementen:
1) College van Commissarissen: focus op politieke problemen.
2) Voorzitter van de Commissie: coördinatie.
3) Directoraten-Generaal (DG): administratieve werkzaamheden (beleidsvoorbereiding,
opstellen wetgeving, (beperkte) regelgevende taken)
4) Secretariaat-Generaal (SG): coördinatie.
5) Een netwerk van commissies
Competenties van de EC:
• EU = belangenafweging in de “institutionele driehoek”.
• Beleidsvoorstellen: monopolie van wetgevingsinitiatief.
• Bemiddelaar tijdens wetgevingsproces
• Externe vertegenwoordiging EU.
• Handhaving mededingingsregels.
• Beheer EU-begroting.
• Toezicht op implementatie door lidstaten.
Het College van Commissarissen
- Één commissaris per lidstaat → 27 commissarissen in totaal.
o Functioneren als een soort kabinet voor het systeem van de EU.
- Hernieuwbaar mandaat van 5 jaar.
o Begint 6 maanden na de verkiezingen van het EP.
- Leden worden voorgedragen door hun nationale regeringen.
o Alle genomineerden zijn verplicht om hoorzittingen voor de relevante
commissies van het EP bij te wonen.
o Onwaarschijnlijk dat EP het College afwijst, buiten als er serieuze
bedenkingen zijn bij één of meer van de genomineerden.
- EP kan het College tijdens het mandaat verwijderen in geval van motie van afkeuring.
o Nog nooit voorgekomen.
- Commissarissen zijn geen nationale vertegenwoordigers.
o Moeten onpartijdig zijn.
o Mogen geen instructies aannemen van hun regeringen.
o In realiteit is het moeilijk om niet beïnvloed te worden.
▪ Helpt wel dat alle lidstaten vertegenwoordigd zijn en dat ze allemaal
maar één stem hebben.
- Geen formele regels over de kwalificaties van ministers.
o Vaak hebben ze al ervaring in het nationale parlement.
- Interne hiërarchie: de sleutelposten zijn begroting, landbouw en handel.
, - Kwestie van onvoldoende substantiële portefeuilles voor alle vertegenwoordigers
van de lidstaten.
- In de nieuwe commissie zijn er drie niveaus van commissarissen:
o 3 uitvoerende vicevoorzitters
▪ voor gebieden die de voorzitter van cruciaal belang acht voor de
toekomst van de EU.
▪ + Hoge Vertegenwoordiger
o 4 thematische vice-presidenten
▪ Bv. Democratie en Demografie.
o 18 reguliere commissarissen
▪ Verantwoordelijk voor een of meer DG's van de Commissie.
- Elke commissaris heeft een kabinet.
o Hebben een chef de cabinet.
o Geven advies en voorzien basisinfo die comm helpen om hun job te doen.
o Kwaliteit van het kabinet heeft grote invloed op het optreden van de
commissaris.
o Chefs de cabinet komen elke maandag samen om wekelijkse samenkomst van
het College voor te bereiden.
o Elk kabinet moet minstens 3 versch nationaliteiten omvatten.
De Voorzitter van de Commissie
- Dominant figuur binnen de EC.
- Kan worden overstemd door andere commissarissen.
- Hernieuwbaar mandaat van 5 jaar.
- Taken:
o Begeleidt vergaderingen van de EC.
o Beslist over het uitdelen van portefeuilles.
o Vertegenwoordigd de EU tov andere EU instellingen en in bijeenkomsten met
nationale regeringen.
o Moet ervoor zorgen dat de EC het Europese integratieproces bevorderd.
- Weinig formele regels over hoe de Voorzitter aangeduid wordt.
- Verdrag van Lissabon: vanaf 2014 moeten de Voorzitters van de EC voorgesteld
worden aan de Europese Raad.
➔ “Spitzenkandidaten” en de selectie van de Voorzitter van de EC.
o Koppeling tot stand brengen tussen Europese verkiezingen en EC-
voorzitterschap
o Indirecte keuze EC-voorzitter door Europese burgers (legitimiteit!)
, o Europese politieke partijen dragen hun kandidaat voor het EU-voorzitterschap
voor (Spitzenkandidaten).
o Kandidaat die een meerderheid in het Europees Parlement kan behalen,
wordt voorzitter van de Commissie.
o Rekening houdend met de verkiezingen voor het Europees Parlement en na
passend overleg, stelt de Europese Raad met gekwalificeerde meerderheid
van stemmen een kandidaat voor het voorzitterschap van de Commissie voor
aan het Europees Parlement. Deze kandidaat wordt door het Europees
Parlement gekozen met een meerderheid van zijn leden. (Artikel 17.7 VEU)
- Huidige voorzitter: Ursula von der Leyen (2019 - ...)
- Eerdere voorzitters:
o Jacques Delors (1985 – 1995)
o Jacques Santer (1995 – 1999)
o Romano Prodi (1999 – 2004)
o José Manuel Barosso (2004 – 2014)
o Jean-Claude Juncker (2014 – 2019)
Directoraten-generaal en Diensten
• Directoraten-generaal (DG)
o 33 DG’s.
o Onder leiding van een director-generaal.
o Equivalent van nationale overheidsdepartementen.
o Verantwoordelijk voor specifieke beleidsterreinen.
o Ambtenaren:
▪ Voltijdse bureaucraten (fonctionnaires), nationale deskundigen en
aanvullend personeel.
▪ De recrutering van voltijds personeel is competitief en complex.
• Eisen: universiteitsdiploma en vloeiend tweetalig.
• Ingangsexamen (concours).
• Kan 3 jaar duren voor je weet of je aangenomen bent.
o Bezig met het opstellen van nieuwe wetten en beleid en het toezicht houden
op de uitvoering.
o Alle belangrijke documenten moeten vertaald worden naar de 23 officiële EU-
talen.
o Verwerken een verscheidenheid aan externe zaken en interne
administratieve zaken.
▪ Europees Bureau voor fraudebestrijding.
▪ Dienst Interne Audit (IAS).
