CHAPTER 1: THE BRITISH
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL GROWTH
Title today: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK)
Large and smaller islands off the north-western European mainland (touched by the
North Sea, English Channel, Irish Sea and Atlantic Ocean.)
Great Britain is the biggest island and is divided into:
1. England
2. Scotland
3. Wales
4. Northern Ireland
Division in pre-history:
1. Old Stone Age
2. Middle Stone Age
3. New Stone Age
Invasions of Celtic groups, Belgic tribes, Romans, Germanic tribes = Anglo-Saxons
influenced the social and political structures of the country. The islands experienced a lot
of invasions. One of them:
THE NORMAN CONQUEST
Norman Conquest, the military conquest of England by William, duke of Normandy, primarily
effected by his decisive victory at the Battle of Hastings (October 14, 1066) and resulting
ultimately in profound political, administrative, and social changes in the British Isles.
The conquest was the final act of a complicated drama that had begun years earlier, in the
reign of Edward the Confessor, last king of the Anglo-Saxon royal line. Edward, who had
almost certainly designated William as his successor in 1051, was involved in a childless
marriage and used his lack of an heir as a diplomatic tool, promising the throne to different
parties throughout his reign, including Harold Godwineson, later Harold II, the powerful earl
of Wessex. The exiled Tostig, who was Harold’s brother, and Harald III Hardraade, king of
Norway, also had designs on the throne and threatened invasion. Amid this welter of
conflicting claims, Edward from his deathbed named Harold his successor on January 5,
1066, and Harold was crowned king the following day. However, Harold’s position was
compromised, according to the Bayeux Tapestry and other Norman sources, because in 1064
he had sworn an oath, in William’s presence, to defend William’s right to the throne.
From almost the beginning of his reign, Harold faced challenges to his authority. Tostig
began raiding the southern and eastern coasts of England in May, eventually joining forces
with Harald III. Harold was able to keep his militia on guard throughout the summer but
,dismissed it early in September, when he ran out of supplies and his peasant soldiers needed
to return to their fields for the harvest. This left the south without defenses, exposing it to
invasion by William. Before William arrived, however, Harald III and Tostig invaded in the
north; Harold hastened to Yorkshire, where at Stamford Bridge (September 25) he won a
smashing victory in which both Harald III and Tostig perished.
Bayeux Tapestry = a 70 metre cloth made in England in 1070, depicting events
leading to the Norman Conquest
Ireland and Wales had been under English control since the 12 th and 13th centuries. But in
1921, Southern Ireland left the union to become the independent Republic of Ireland while
Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.
Britain developed an early manufacturing and financial base with connections to
Europe
Been responsible for major and influential scientific medical and technological
advances.
Had become a dominant industrial and political world power in the 19th century.
FUNDAMENTAL POLITICAL REFORMS:
Extension of vote
Increasing authority of the elected House of Commons
SOCIAL CHANGES:
Growth labour movement
Formation labour party
Creation of welfare state (Attlee)
These later changed in the 20 th century as new political parties developed, and government
economic policies shifted. Britain’s first woman prime minister Thatcher and her
Conservative government were central to these developments attracted strong support
and fierce opposition.
1. CLEMENT ATTLEE
First labour prime minister
Inaugurated radical reform welfare state, NHS, nationalization of private industry
into public services
He was in favor of the public services
2. MARGARET THATCHER
Concervative prime minister
First British woman prime minster
Introduced privatization programmes and denationalization of public services
She was against the public services
There were battles between:
, 1. Centre-left parties = Labour
2. Centre-right parties = Conservative
The social and economic strength was reduced by the effects of the two world wars. After
the Second World War, Britain had to adjust with difficulty to a withdrawal from empire. The
nation had been forced into a search for a new identity and direction, internationally and
nationally.
CONTEMPORARY CONDITIONS
Britain today is a complex society in which diversity and change have created
problems as well as advantages
The country seems homogeneous but that is not the case because there are existing
divisions because of dominance and influence of London on the rest of the country.
Britains feel that they have become more aggressive, selfish, less tolerant, less kind,
less moral,..
There are cultural gaps between the north and the south
A lot of people believe that Britain is going into the wrong direction (2010)
Their society has been affected by mistrust, cynicism, materialism, egotism,..
ATTITUDES
They may often give accurate pictures of what is happening at the grass roots,
although they do have to be approached with a certain caution.
Public responses may tend to deal with topical rather than long-term concerns and
may vary considerably within a short period of time.
Increasing dissatisfaction with politicians
Britain’s most pressing concerns:
1. More pressing concerns emerged about immigration/immigrants, which were in first
place with 45 per cent after being in second place in March 2010 with 33 per cent.
2. The economy (which had experienced significant growth in 2014 and 2015) had been
pushed down from first place at 55 per cent in March 2010 (the previous general
election year) to third place at 28 per cent.
3. The National Health Service (NHS) had moved to second place with 38 per cent after
a fifth place in March 2010 at 20 per cent and frequently appears high in the listings.
4. Unemployment was at 21 per cent in fourth place (the same as in 2010).
5. Education/schools had risen to fifth at 20 per cent from sixth in 2010 at 19 per cent.
6. Poverty/inequality at 16 per cent had risen significantly to sixth place in the list;
This suggested that immigration numbers were now a dominant factor for respondents, but
that race relations were no longer a major issue.
,
,CHAPTER 2: THE COUNTRY
GEOGRAPHICAL IDENTITIES
title for constitutional and political purposes is the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland (the UK and Britain for short).
Britain comprises a number of islands lying off the north-west coast of continental
Europe, which are often known as the British Isles.
The mainland of England, Scotland and Wales forms the largest island with the
political title of Great Britain.
Northern Ireland shares the second-largest island with the Republic of Ireland, which
has been politically independent since 1921.
Smaller islands, like Anglesey, the Isle of Wight and the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides
and Scillies, are also part of the British political union.
And then there are hybrids such as the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
Isle of Man in the Irish sea and the Channel Islands off North Coast France are not
part of the UK. They have their own identities and legal systems and they also have
their own Crown Dependencies= Historical relationships with the British crown but
British government is responsible for their defense and foreign relation. They can
intervene if administration is not maintained.
REGIONS IN BRITAIN
Britain has sometimes been divided into geographic 'regions' (areas). These may reflect a
specific identity, especially when they concern devolved nations, but arguably much less so
for the English regions. Regions are not the same as modern local government structures
and are geographically larger. They have served as assistance and development areas
service locations as gas, water,..
Following devolution, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland became self-governing 'national'
units rather than 'regions'.
Nine regions were created in England, which took the form of Regional Development
Agencies (RDAs).
They were unelected politico-economic structures, which were appointed by
government to organize and maximize regional development.
Today the English regions no longer have a devolved government role, but their areas
do have some administrative purposes, form the constituency boundaries for
regional elections to the EU Parliament, are the names of BBC broadcasting regions
and serve as a basis for regional statistics..
The future of devolution structures in the UK is uncertain.
1. London
2. South East
3. South West
4. East of England
5. East Midlands
, 6. West Midlands
7. Yorkshire and the Humber
8. North East
9. North West
PHYSICAL FEATURES BRITAIN
Britons live in densely populated areas
Countryside has become a political issue
People of the countryside (farmers) feel neglected by the government destruction
and pollution of the physical environment use rural land for housing built
roads, airports decrease in rural services as public transport and post offices,…
Dominance of England in British history because England is much larger than the rest.
Britain has 15 national parks
Small distance between the islands aided the development of political union and
communications
Was originally part of the European mainland! But because of melting of glaciers, the
country was separated from the North sea (widest) and English Channel (at
narrowest point)
Flooding has become more frequent since 2007 which results in property loss,
financial loss,..
Coastal sees are not deep because they lie on continental shelf
The warm Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Current) heats the sea and air and because of
that, the country has a better climate and the Gulf also influences the coastal fish
breeding
Relief is divided into highland and lowland
North and west are older harder rocks created by ancient earth movements
South and east younger materials formed by watering processes good
agricultural conditions
When it comes to highland and lowland zones, the island of Ireland is a different ball
game, with most lowlands of the island being in the central parts. Ben Nevis, Britain’s
highest mountain, lies is Scotland
COASTAL PROBLEMS
Natural forces have affected the coastlines as seas have moved backwards and forwards
over time.
Parts of the coastal area have either sunk under the sea or risen above it.
These processes continue today, particularly on the English cast and south coasts.
Geological tilting from north to south, rising sea levels and erosion have resulted in the loss
of land, houses and farms, while the sea's retreat has created either chalk and limestone
uplands or sand beaches along some coasts.
RIVERS
,No offence to Scotland (Clyde and Tweed) and Northern Ireland but the most noteworthy
rivers in the UK are in England and Wales.
On a need to know basis, at least
o Thames
o Severn
o Trent
o Tyne
ENGLAND
England covers two-thirds of Great Britain.
It consists mainly of undulating or flat lowland countryside, with highland areas in the
north and south-west.
Eastern England has the low-lying flat lands of the Norfolk Broads, the
Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire Fens and the Suffolk Marshes.
Low hill ranges stretch over much of the country; such as the North Yorkshire Moors,
the Cotswolds, the Kent and Sussex Downs and the Chiltern Hills.
Highland zones are marked by the Cheviot Hills (between England and Scotland); the north-
western mountain region of the Lake District and the Cumbrian Mountains, where the
highest peak in England is Scafell Pike (3,209 ft, 978 m); the northern plateau belt of the
Pennines forming a backbone across north-west England; the Peak District of Derbyshire at
the southern reaches of the Pennines; and the south-western plateau of Devon and Cornwall
The heaviest population concentrations centre on the largest (historically industrial and
manufacturing) towns and cities,
such as London and those in south-east England generally;
the West Midlands region around Birmingham;
the Yorkshire cities of Leeds, Bradford and Sheffield;
the north-western area around Liverpool and Manchester;
and the north-east region comprising Newcastle and Sunderland.
WALES
Wales is a highland country, with moorland plateau, hills and mountains, which are often
interspersed with deep river valleys.
This upland mass contains the Cambrian Mountains and descends eastwards into
England.
The highest mountains are in the
National Park area of Snowdonia in
the north-west, where the dominant
peak is that of Snowdon
Lowland zones are restricted to the narrow
coastal belts and lower parts of the river valleys
in south Wales, where two-thirds of the Welsh
population live.
, The chief urban concentrations of people and industry are around the bigger southern cities,
such as the capital Cardiff, Swansea and Newport.
In the past, the highland nature of Wales hindered conquest, agriculture and the settlement
of people.
SCOTLAND
Scotland may be divided into three areas.
The first is the North-West and Central Highlands (Grampians), together with a number of
islands off the west and north-east coasts.
The Hebrides (Inner and Outer); Orkney Islands; Shetland Islands
These areas are thinly populated, but comprise half the country's land mass.
The Highlands, with their lochs and fiord coastlines, and the Southern Uplands
are now smooth, rounded areas since the original jagged mountains have
been worn down by weathering forces. The highest point in the Central
Highlands is Ben Nevis (4,406 ft, 1,343 m), which is also the highest place in
Britain.
The second is the Central Lowlands, which contain one- fifth of the land area but three-
quarters of the Scottish population, most of the industrial and commercial centres and
much of the cultivated land.
The main population concentrations are around the administrative centre and
capital of Edinburgh; the commercial and formerly heavily industrial area of
Glasgow; and the regional centres Dundee and Aberdeen (an oil industry city),
although the latter is not often seen as belonging to the Central Lowlands.
The third is the Southern Uplands, which cover a number of hill ranges stretching towards
the border with England.
NORTHERN IRELAND
Northern Ireland shares an island with the Republic of Ireland and since 1921 has had a 303
mile (488 km) border in the south and west with the Republic.
The mere existence of Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland has been the main source of
conflict and friction, as exemplified by centuries of conquests, battles, plantations and
destruction by the English as well as decades of violent Troubles (mainly from the early
1970s to the late 1990s).Most of the large towns, like the capital, Belfast, are situated in
valleys which lead from the lough.
Belfast lies at the mouth of the river Lagan and has the biggest population concentration.
However, Northern Ireland generally has a sparse and scattered population and is a largely
rural country. Northern Ireland on a need to know basis includes: Belfast, Lough Neagh,
(London)Derry, Giant’s Causeway
THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND
CONTEXT
HISTORICAL GROWTH
Title today: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (UK)
Large and smaller islands off the north-western European mainland (touched by the
North Sea, English Channel, Irish Sea and Atlantic Ocean.)
Great Britain is the biggest island and is divided into:
1. England
2. Scotland
3. Wales
4. Northern Ireland
Division in pre-history:
1. Old Stone Age
2. Middle Stone Age
3. New Stone Age
Invasions of Celtic groups, Belgic tribes, Romans, Germanic tribes = Anglo-Saxons
influenced the social and political structures of the country. The islands experienced a lot
of invasions. One of them:
THE NORMAN CONQUEST
Norman Conquest, the military conquest of England by William, duke of Normandy, primarily
effected by his decisive victory at the Battle of Hastings (October 14, 1066) and resulting
ultimately in profound political, administrative, and social changes in the British Isles.
The conquest was the final act of a complicated drama that had begun years earlier, in the
reign of Edward the Confessor, last king of the Anglo-Saxon royal line. Edward, who had
almost certainly designated William as his successor in 1051, was involved in a childless
marriage and used his lack of an heir as a diplomatic tool, promising the throne to different
parties throughout his reign, including Harold Godwineson, later Harold II, the powerful earl
of Wessex. The exiled Tostig, who was Harold’s brother, and Harald III Hardraade, king of
Norway, also had designs on the throne and threatened invasion. Amid this welter of
conflicting claims, Edward from his deathbed named Harold his successor on January 5,
1066, and Harold was crowned king the following day. However, Harold’s position was
compromised, according to the Bayeux Tapestry and other Norman sources, because in 1064
he had sworn an oath, in William’s presence, to defend William’s right to the throne.
From almost the beginning of his reign, Harold faced challenges to his authority. Tostig
began raiding the southern and eastern coasts of England in May, eventually joining forces
with Harald III. Harold was able to keep his militia on guard throughout the summer but
,dismissed it early in September, when he ran out of supplies and his peasant soldiers needed
to return to their fields for the harvest. This left the south without defenses, exposing it to
invasion by William. Before William arrived, however, Harald III and Tostig invaded in the
north; Harold hastened to Yorkshire, where at Stamford Bridge (September 25) he won a
smashing victory in which both Harald III and Tostig perished.
Bayeux Tapestry = a 70 metre cloth made in England in 1070, depicting events
leading to the Norman Conquest
Ireland and Wales had been under English control since the 12 th and 13th centuries. But in
1921, Southern Ireland left the union to become the independent Republic of Ireland while
Northern Ireland remained part of the UK.
Britain developed an early manufacturing and financial base with connections to
Europe
Been responsible for major and influential scientific medical and technological
advances.
Had become a dominant industrial and political world power in the 19th century.
FUNDAMENTAL POLITICAL REFORMS:
Extension of vote
Increasing authority of the elected House of Commons
SOCIAL CHANGES:
Growth labour movement
Formation labour party
Creation of welfare state (Attlee)
These later changed in the 20 th century as new political parties developed, and government
economic policies shifted. Britain’s first woman prime minister Thatcher and her
Conservative government were central to these developments attracted strong support
and fierce opposition.
1. CLEMENT ATTLEE
First labour prime minister
Inaugurated radical reform welfare state, NHS, nationalization of private industry
into public services
He was in favor of the public services
2. MARGARET THATCHER
Concervative prime minister
First British woman prime minster
Introduced privatization programmes and denationalization of public services
She was against the public services
There were battles between:
, 1. Centre-left parties = Labour
2. Centre-right parties = Conservative
The social and economic strength was reduced by the effects of the two world wars. After
the Second World War, Britain had to adjust with difficulty to a withdrawal from empire. The
nation had been forced into a search for a new identity and direction, internationally and
nationally.
CONTEMPORARY CONDITIONS
Britain today is a complex society in which diversity and change have created
problems as well as advantages
The country seems homogeneous but that is not the case because there are existing
divisions because of dominance and influence of London on the rest of the country.
Britains feel that they have become more aggressive, selfish, less tolerant, less kind,
less moral,..
There are cultural gaps between the north and the south
A lot of people believe that Britain is going into the wrong direction (2010)
Their society has been affected by mistrust, cynicism, materialism, egotism,..
ATTITUDES
They may often give accurate pictures of what is happening at the grass roots,
although they do have to be approached with a certain caution.
Public responses may tend to deal with topical rather than long-term concerns and
may vary considerably within a short period of time.
Increasing dissatisfaction with politicians
Britain’s most pressing concerns:
1. More pressing concerns emerged about immigration/immigrants, which were in first
place with 45 per cent after being in second place in March 2010 with 33 per cent.
2. The economy (which had experienced significant growth in 2014 and 2015) had been
pushed down from first place at 55 per cent in March 2010 (the previous general
election year) to third place at 28 per cent.
3. The National Health Service (NHS) had moved to second place with 38 per cent after
a fifth place in March 2010 at 20 per cent and frequently appears high in the listings.
4. Unemployment was at 21 per cent in fourth place (the same as in 2010).
5. Education/schools had risen to fifth at 20 per cent from sixth in 2010 at 19 per cent.
6. Poverty/inequality at 16 per cent had risen significantly to sixth place in the list;
This suggested that immigration numbers were now a dominant factor for respondents, but
that race relations were no longer a major issue.
,
,CHAPTER 2: THE COUNTRY
GEOGRAPHICAL IDENTITIES
title for constitutional and political purposes is the United Kingdom of Great Britain
and Northern Ireland (the UK and Britain for short).
Britain comprises a number of islands lying off the north-west coast of continental
Europe, which are often known as the British Isles.
The mainland of England, Scotland and Wales forms the largest island with the
political title of Great Britain.
Northern Ireland shares the second-largest island with the Republic of Ireland, which
has been politically independent since 1921.
Smaller islands, like Anglesey, the Isle of Wight and the Orkneys, Shetlands, Hebrides
and Scillies, are also part of the British political union.
And then there are hybrids such as the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands.
Isle of Man in the Irish sea and the Channel Islands off North Coast France are not
part of the UK. They have their own identities and legal systems and they also have
their own Crown Dependencies= Historical relationships with the British crown but
British government is responsible for their defense and foreign relation. They can
intervene if administration is not maintained.
REGIONS IN BRITAIN
Britain has sometimes been divided into geographic 'regions' (areas). These may reflect a
specific identity, especially when they concern devolved nations, but arguably much less so
for the English regions. Regions are not the same as modern local government structures
and are geographically larger. They have served as assistance and development areas
service locations as gas, water,..
Following devolution, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland became self-governing 'national'
units rather than 'regions'.
Nine regions were created in England, which took the form of Regional Development
Agencies (RDAs).
They were unelected politico-economic structures, which were appointed by
government to organize and maximize regional development.
Today the English regions no longer have a devolved government role, but their areas
do have some administrative purposes, form the constituency boundaries for
regional elections to the EU Parliament, are the names of BBC broadcasting regions
and serve as a basis for regional statistics..
The future of devolution structures in the UK is uncertain.
1. London
2. South East
3. South West
4. East of England
5. East Midlands
, 6. West Midlands
7. Yorkshire and the Humber
8. North East
9. North West
PHYSICAL FEATURES BRITAIN
Britons live in densely populated areas
Countryside has become a political issue
People of the countryside (farmers) feel neglected by the government destruction
and pollution of the physical environment use rural land for housing built
roads, airports decrease in rural services as public transport and post offices,…
Dominance of England in British history because England is much larger than the rest.
Britain has 15 national parks
Small distance between the islands aided the development of political union and
communications
Was originally part of the European mainland! But because of melting of glaciers, the
country was separated from the North sea (widest) and English Channel (at
narrowest point)
Flooding has become more frequent since 2007 which results in property loss,
financial loss,..
Coastal sees are not deep because they lie on continental shelf
The warm Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Current) heats the sea and air and because of
that, the country has a better climate and the Gulf also influences the coastal fish
breeding
Relief is divided into highland and lowland
North and west are older harder rocks created by ancient earth movements
South and east younger materials formed by watering processes good
agricultural conditions
When it comes to highland and lowland zones, the island of Ireland is a different ball
game, with most lowlands of the island being in the central parts. Ben Nevis, Britain’s
highest mountain, lies is Scotland
COASTAL PROBLEMS
Natural forces have affected the coastlines as seas have moved backwards and forwards
over time.
Parts of the coastal area have either sunk under the sea or risen above it.
These processes continue today, particularly on the English cast and south coasts.
Geological tilting from north to south, rising sea levels and erosion have resulted in the loss
of land, houses and farms, while the sea's retreat has created either chalk and limestone
uplands or sand beaches along some coasts.
RIVERS
,No offence to Scotland (Clyde and Tweed) and Northern Ireland but the most noteworthy
rivers in the UK are in England and Wales.
On a need to know basis, at least
o Thames
o Severn
o Trent
o Tyne
ENGLAND
England covers two-thirds of Great Britain.
It consists mainly of undulating or flat lowland countryside, with highland areas in the
north and south-west.
Eastern England has the low-lying flat lands of the Norfolk Broads, the
Cambridgeshire and Lincolnshire Fens and the Suffolk Marshes.
Low hill ranges stretch over much of the country; such as the North Yorkshire Moors,
the Cotswolds, the Kent and Sussex Downs and the Chiltern Hills.
Highland zones are marked by the Cheviot Hills (between England and Scotland); the north-
western mountain region of the Lake District and the Cumbrian Mountains, where the
highest peak in England is Scafell Pike (3,209 ft, 978 m); the northern plateau belt of the
Pennines forming a backbone across north-west England; the Peak District of Derbyshire at
the southern reaches of the Pennines; and the south-western plateau of Devon and Cornwall
The heaviest population concentrations centre on the largest (historically industrial and
manufacturing) towns and cities,
such as London and those in south-east England generally;
the West Midlands region around Birmingham;
the Yorkshire cities of Leeds, Bradford and Sheffield;
the north-western area around Liverpool and Manchester;
and the north-east region comprising Newcastle and Sunderland.
WALES
Wales is a highland country, with moorland plateau, hills and mountains, which are often
interspersed with deep river valleys.
This upland mass contains the Cambrian Mountains and descends eastwards into
England.
The highest mountains are in the
National Park area of Snowdonia in
the north-west, where the dominant
peak is that of Snowdon
Lowland zones are restricted to the narrow
coastal belts and lower parts of the river valleys
in south Wales, where two-thirds of the Welsh
population live.
, The chief urban concentrations of people and industry are around the bigger southern cities,
such as the capital Cardiff, Swansea and Newport.
In the past, the highland nature of Wales hindered conquest, agriculture and the settlement
of people.
SCOTLAND
Scotland may be divided into three areas.
The first is the North-West and Central Highlands (Grampians), together with a number of
islands off the west and north-east coasts.
The Hebrides (Inner and Outer); Orkney Islands; Shetland Islands
These areas are thinly populated, but comprise half the country's land mass.
The Highlands, with their lochs and fiord coastlines, and the Southern Uplands
are now smooth, rounded areas since the original jagged mountains have
been worn down by weathering forces. The highest point in the Central
Highlands is Ben Nevis (4,406 ft, 1,343 m), which is also the highest place in
Britain.
The second is the Central Lowlands, which contain one- fifth of the land area but three-
quarters of the Scottish population, most of the industrial and commercial centres and
much of the cultivated land.
The main population concentrations are around the administrative centre and
capital of Edinburgh; the commercial and formerly heavily industrial area of
Glasgow; and the regional centres Dundee and Aberdeen (an oil industry city),
although the latter is not often seen as belonging to the Central Lowlands.
The third is the Southern Uplands, which cover a number of hill ranges stretching towards
the border with England.
NORTHERN IRELAND
Northern Ireland shares an island with the Republic of Ireland and since 1921 has had a 303
mile (488 km) border in the south and west with the Republic.
The mere existence of Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland has been the main source of
conflict and friction, as exemplified by centuries of conquests, battles, plantations and
destruction by the English as well as decades of violent Troubles (mainly from the early
1970s to the late 1990s).Most of the large towns, like the capital, Belfast, are situated in
valleys which lead from the lough.
Belfast lies at the mouth of the river Lagan and has the biggest population concentration.
However, Northern Ireland generally has a sparse and scattered population and is a largely
rural country. Northern Ireland on a need to know basis includes: Belfast, Lough Neagh,
(London)Derry, Giant’s Causeway
THE REPUBLIC OF IRELAND
