VICTIMOLOGY
1. ORIGIN AND CONCEPTS
1. HISTORY
A. The origin
Vic mology
• The scien fic study of the extent, nature, and causes of (criminal) vic miza on, its
consequences for the individuals involved, and societal responses, par cularly those
of the police, criminal jus ce system, as well as voluntary and welfare services (VWS).
• Vic mology World Society
• O'en considered a subdiscipline:
• Psychiatry, law, social work.
• However, criminologists have the greatest influence.
• An essen al component of offender studies within criminology, it has thus
become an integral part of criminological sciences.
• 2 strands:
• 1) based on research / police / criminal jus ce
• 2) more humanis c: support people, social welfare services etc.)
Who’s the vic m?
Studies have shown that D is the one who has the most chance of becoming an
vic m of crime
reason: general lifestyle theory: chances of becoming a vic m is dependent on
what you do, how you behave to others, what you do in life…
Leopold Szondi: genotropism (1930s).
• Theory: Reciprocal a8rac on of the same/similar recessive genes influencing human behavior (ins nct).
• No evidence for genotropism, not proven
Ted Bundy (1946-1989): Confirmed 36 vic ms in the 1970s.
• Ideal vic m is someone who has been vic mized before, easy to approach, he recognized them by
their body language (mostly how they walk)
1
, • Vic m Selec on:
• A ma8er of opportunity.
• He claimed that he could iden fy a poten al vic m by the way she walks down the
street, the way she carries her head, her body language, etc. (Holmes & Holmes, 2010).
• Research confirms that vic ms exhibit certain typical body language, especially in
the way they walk (Grayson & Stein, 1981).
• Psychopaths are more accurate in recognizing poten al vic ms (Wheeler et al.,
2009; Book et al., 2013; Denardo Roney, J. L. et al., 2018).
First men on of 'vic mology'
• Mendelsohn, 1947: during the presenta on of a paper.
• Considered the spiritual father of the vic m movement.
• Werthem (1949) also advocates for a "crime vic m-centered" science.
• Focused par cularly on murder.
First systema c inves ga on into crime vic ms by von Hen g (1941, 1948).
• "The Criminal and his Vic m" (1948). Part 4: "The Vic m's contribu on to the
genesis of the crime."
– Cri que of the one-dimensional perspec ve within criminology.
"The law considers certain results and the final moves which lead to them. Here it makes a clear-cut
dis nc on between the one who does and the one who suffers. Looking into the genesis of the situa on, in
a considerable number of cases, we meet a vic m who consents tacitly, cooperates, conspires, or provokes.
The vic m is one of the causa ve elements" (p. 436).
Consents tacitly = s lzwijgende instemming
Conspires: commiKng a crime together and then geKng stabbed in the back
Provokes: challenging someone
Ra onal analysis of the genesis of a crime
Number of theore cal studies:
• On vic m types, the rela onship between vic m and offender, and the role vic ms play in
certain criminal phenomena.
Number of empirical studies:
• Murder, rape, the', assault, fraud, extor on,...
• Mar n Wolfgang: "vic m precipitated criminal homicide" (1957).
• 588 murder cases between 1948-1952 in Philadelphia
• 26% VP cases where the vic m was the first to engage in violence.
2
, • Vic m precipita on: something happened before the incident, because of the vic m’s
behavior, vic m is not neutral, vic m contributes
• Ex.: phishing: clicking on a lick
• Menachem Amir: "Vic m precipitated forcible rape" (1967).
• Ac ve 'contribu on': accep ng a drink from a stranger, riding with a stranger.
• Passive 'contribu on': not reac ng strongly enough to sexual advances.
• Examples: alcohol, "reputa on," place of residence, mee ng place,...
• NO excuse for the offender.
Vic m precipita on or vic m-blaming?
• Especially in the 1970s, vic m precipita on was increasingly seen as vic m-blaming.
• People are responsible for their own behavior: ex. Locking the doors vic m precipita on
• Close the door, don’t leave your purse, have a lock on your bike…
VP research has contributed to two major criminological theories:
• Lifestyle theory (Hindelang et al., 1978)
• what you do in your life has an influence ex. Fight a lot high chance on geKng
a violent a8ack
• Rou ne ac vi es theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979)
• crime will occur when there is 1) a mo vated offender ; 2) a suitable target ;
3) the absence of a capable guardian
• opportunity for crime occurs
• Focus on LT and RAT is s ll today (easy way out on thinking about crime)
At the core of these pioneers: vic ms of crimes.
• 1950s-1960s
• Also during the 1970s-1980s due to the emergence of professional assistance for crime vic ms.
• People starts asking for help psychologists, psychiatrists, health care
emerging to help people
1979: establishment of the World Society of Vic mology
• First me that academicians came together to start looking at what is a vic m? How
can we help them?
3
, B. Evolu on
Gradual broadening during the 1970s of the research focus.
• Similari es with war vic ms, prisoners in camps, and certain types of aggression and
discrimina on (Nazism, Apartheid).
• Criminologists explore other crimes/phenomena: white-collar crime, environmental crime,...
• Who is the vic m here, and what about percep on?
• Environmental crime: asbestos in houses etc. later found out that it s mulates cancer
effects always years later clear
Also within the WSV, discussions about the research object of vic mology.
• Difference between scien fic vic mologists and humanis c aid providers.
Division among vic mologists: restrict to vic ms of crimes or include other vic ms?
• Refer to the defini on of vic mology by the World Society of Vic mology (WSV).
• Prominent debate in the 1970s-1980s, but largely disappeared by the late 1990s-2000s
(see UN Declara on).
• 60-70-80: crime rise, concerns about fear of crime
• End 60/begin 70: first vic m surveys, first poli cal concerns about fear of crime
• Poli cs: help vic ms of crime, contribute to their living condi ons, consequences
of crime can be economically, financially, mentally…
UN Declara on of Basic Principles of Jus ce for Vic ms of Crime and Abuse of Power (1985)
• Unanimously adopted in the General Assembly.
• Objec ve: set minimum standards for states to meet in providing assistance to vic ms.
• Assistance: more humane approach
Was a compromise.
• Developed countries: vic ms of crime.
• Developing countries: vic ms of abuse of power should have the same rights as the first category.
• Much more provision for the first category than for the second.
See:
11. Where public officials or other agents ac ng in an official or quasi-official capacity have violated na onal
criminal laws, the vic ms should receive res tu on from the State whose officials or agents were responsible
for the harm inflicted.
19. States should consider incorpora ng into na onal law norms proscribing abuses of power and providing
remedies to vic ms of such abuses.
4
1. ORIGIN AND CONCEPTS
1. HISTORY
A. The origin
Vic mology
• The scien fic study of the extent, nature, and causes of (criminal) vic miza on, its
consequences for the individuals involved, and societal responses, par cularly those
of the police, criminal jus ce system, as well as voluntary and welfare services (VWS).
• Vic mology World Society
• O'en considered a subdiscipline:
• Psychiatry, law, social work.
• However, criminologists have the greatest influence.
• An essen al component of offender studies within criminology, it has thus
become an integral part of criminological sciences.
• 2 strands:
• 1) based on research / police / criminal jus ce
• 2) more humanis c: support people, social welfare services etc.)
Who’s the vic m?
Studies have shown that D is the one who has the most chance of becoming an
vic m of crime
reason: general lifestyle theory: chances of becoming a vic m is dependent on
what you do, how you behave to others, what you do in life…
Leopold Szondi: genotropism (1930s).
• Theory: Reciprocal a8rac on of the same/similar recessive genes influencing human behavior (ins nct).
• No evidence for genotropism, not proven
Ted Bundy (1946-1989): Confirmed 36 vic ms in the 1970s.
• Ideal vic m is someone who has been vic mized before, easy to approach, he recognized them by
their body language (mostly how they walk)
1
, • Vic m Selec on:
• A ma8er of opportunity.
• He claimed that he could iden fy a poten al vic m by the way she walks down the
street, the way she carries her head, her body language, etc. (Holmes & Holmes, 2010).
• Research confirms that vic ms exhibit certain typical body language, especially in
the way they walk (Grayson & Stein, 1981).
• Psychopaths are more accurate in recognizing poten al vic ms (Wheeler et al.,
2009; Book et al., 2013; Denardo Roney, J. L. et al., 2018).
First men on of 'vic mology'
• Mendelsohn, 1947: during the presenta on of a paper.
• Considered the spiritual father of the vic m movement.
• Werthem (1949) also advocates for a "crime vic m-centered" science.
• Focused par cularly on murder.
First systema c inves ga on into crime vic ms by von Hen g (1941, 1948).
• "The Criminal and his Vic m" (1948). Part 4: "The Vic m's contribu on to the
genesis of the crime."
– Cri que of the one-dimensional perspec ve within criminology.
"The law considers certain results and the final moves which lead to them. Here it makes a clear-cut
dis nc on between the one who does and the one who suffers. Looking into the genesis of the situa on, in
a considerable number of cases, we meet a vic m who consents tacitly, cooperates, conspires, or provokes.
The vic m is one of the causa ve elements" (p. 436).
Consents tacitly = s lzwijgende instemming
Conspires: commiKng a crime together and then geKng stabbed in the back
Provokes: challenging someone
Ra onal analysis of the genesis of a crime
Number of theore cal studies:
• On vic m types, the rela onship between vic m and offender, and the role vic ms play in
certain criminal phenomena.
Number of empirical studies:
• Murder, rape, the', assault, fraud, extor on,...
• Mar n Wolfgang: "vic m precipitated criminal homicide" (1957).
• 588 murder cases between 1948-1952 in Philadelphia
• 26% VP cases where the vic m was the first to engage in violence.
2
, • Vic m precipita on: something happened before the incident, because of the vic m’s
behavior, vic m is not neutral, vic m contributes
• Ex.: phishing: clicking on a lick
• Menachem Amir: "Vic m precipitated forcible rape" (1967).
• Ac ve 'contribu on': accep ng a drink from a stranger, riding with a stranger.
• Passive 'contribu on': not reac ng strongly enough to sexual advances.
• Examples: alcohol, "reputa on," place of residence, mee ng place,...
• NO excuse for the offender.
Vic m precipita on or vic m-blaming?
• Especially in the 1970s, vic m precipita on was increasingly seen as vic m-blaming.
• People are responsible for their own behavior: ex. Locking the doors vic m precipita on
• Close the door, don’t leave your purse, have a lock on your bike…
VP research has contributed to two major criminological theories:
• Lifestyle theory (Hindelang et al., 1978)
• what you do in your life has an influence ex. Fight a lot high chance on geKng
a violent a8ack
• Rou ne ac vi es theory (Cohen & Felson, 1979)
• crime will occur when there is 1) a mo vated offender ; 2) a suitable target ;
3) the absence of a capable guardian
• opportunity for crime occurs
• Focus on LT and RAT is s ll today (easy way out on thinking about crime)
At the core of these pioneers: vic ms of crimes.
• 1950s-1960s
• Also during the 1970s-1980s due to the emergence of professional assistance for crime vic ms.
• People starts asking for help psychologists, psychiatrists, health care
emerging to help people
1979: establishment of the World Society of Vic mology
• First me that academicians came together to start looking at what is a vic m? How
can we help them?
3
, B. Evolu on
Gradual broadening during the 1970s of the research focus.
• Similari es with war vic ms, prisoners in camps, and certain types of aggression and
discrimina on (Nazism, Apartheid).
• Criminologists explore other crimes/phenomena: white-collar crime, environmental crime,...
• Who is the vic m here, and what about percep on?
• Environmental crime: asbestos in houses etc. later found out that it s mulates cancer
effects always years later clear
Also within the WSV, discussions about the research object of vic mology.
• Difference between scien fic vic mologists and humanis c aid providers.
Division among vic mologists: restrict to vic ms of crimes or include other vic ms?
• Refer to the defini on of vic mology by the World Society of Vic mology (WSV).
• Prominent debate in the 1970s-1980s, but largely disappeared by the late 1990s-2000s
(see UN Declara on).
• 60-70-80: crime rise, concerns about fear of crime
• End 60/begin 70: first vic m surveys, first poli cal concerns about fear of crime
• Poli cs: help vic ms of crime, contribute to their living condi ons, consequences
of crime can be economically, financially, mentally…
UN Declara on of Basic Principles of Jus ce for Vic ms of Crime and Abuse of Power (1985)
• Unanimously adopted in the General Assembly.
• Objec ve: set minimum standards for states to meet in providing assistance to vic ms.
• Assistance: more humane approach
Was a compromise.
• Developed countries: vic ms of crime.
• Developing countries: vic ms of abuse of power should have the same rights as the first category.
• Much more provision for the first category than for the second.
See:
11. Where public officials or other agents ac ng in an official or quasi-official capacity have violated na onal
criminal laws, the vic ms should receive res tu on from the State whose officials or agents were responsible
for the harm inflicted.
19. States should consider incorpora ng into na onal law norms proscribing abuses of power and providing
remedies to vic ms of such abuses.
4
