Cross-Cultural Psychology: WEEK 1 EXAM 1, questions and answers

Cross-Cultural Psychology: WEEK 1 EXAM 1, questions and answers Mainstream Psychology Researchers do studies in the U.S. and assume findings are universal; assign "customs" or "laws in context" that are not so relevant to every unique individual. Examines human behavior in one culture with the assumption that theory and research can be generalized to all individuals in all cultures. Assumes that the mind functions under a set of universal laws independent of context (Shweder, 1990) cross-cultural approach Compares differences within different cultures. Examines differences and similarities in human thought and behavior across cultures. Examines the ways in which culture interacts with and shapes human thought and behavior. The critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology. psychic unity Central Processing Mechanism/Unit. An abstract and transcendent universal property that enables people to think , feel, and act. What allows us to communicate with others. Sadness can be expressed and taken on by those who perceive us. Used as a metaphor to understand human that conduct in different ways. culture-specific behavior Behavior that is found to be true for some cultures. Culturally relative; Culturally bound. Ex.:) Gestures can be seen as culturally particular. 1. Romantic love 2. Types of parenting Emotions 4. Symptoms of depression culture Dynamic system of rules, shared attitudes, beliefs, values, and behaviors. Operates on multiple levels. Cultural transmission. A set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next. ● Descriptive: Shared way of life ● Historical: Different aspects of heritages and passed on. ● Normative: Describes norms and rules that we are socialized with. ● Structural: Where we observe the socio-cultural context Descriptive concept- ◦ Shared way of life; types of activities, behaviors Historical concept- ◦ Heritage and tradition Normative concept- ◦ The rules and norms Structural concept - ◦ Sociocultural context Culture becomes incorporated by life, we learn it through social learning. Group of individuals: Social-cultural context- institutions, cultural practices. FROM BOOK: Information that is passed on acquired form individuals through social learning as well as a group of individuals who share the same ideas, beliefs, values and contexts. enculturation The process by which individuals learn and adopt the ways and manners of their culture. Eventually assimilating to it's practices, customs, and values. imitative learning As humans, we imitate what a model does. Imitative (human beings)- viewing the behavior of the model and internalizing the goal (made possible due to theory of mind). We tend to learn from people who excel and we tend to learn faster than other species. memes Smallest units of cultural information transmitted from person to person within a culture. Theorized to function as the bases of evolution of culture.Virtually any complex idea or notion can be a meme. Religious beliefs, foods, recipes for preparing foods, the wheel, wearing clothing, technologies and war all qualify. Self-replicating ideas, fashions, and innovations passed from person to person existential universal Exists in multiple cultures, although the tool is not necessarily used to solve the same problem , nor is it equally accessible across cultures - In all cultures but occurs with differing frequencies across cultures.Varies in function. Exists in many cultures but used in different ways. Ex.) Motivation for success/failure Proximal causes Causes that have direct and immediate relations with their effects; causes of behavior that focus on immediate, local, psychological, and sociological determinants. Direct and immediate relations with their affects. Ex.:) Spanish defeated and conquered Incans due to organization, ships, horses, and steel armor/guns. Distal causes Initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time and often through indirect relations. Initial differences that lead to effects over long periods of time, and often through indirect relations. Ex.:) Major continental axes. West = Agriculture; East= Domestication → Ultimate cause of resistance of disease derived form domestication and spread to Incans in Settlements. Flynn Effect The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations; worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years. People become smarter by decade or generation. Cross-Cultural Psychology Investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups. Branch of psychology that studies the effects of culture on behavior and mental processes. Focuses on the similarities and differences in psychological functioning across cultures and ethnic groups; an approach that tries to determine the extent to which research findings about human psychology hold true across cultures. A unique meaning and information system shared by a group and transmitted across generations. Helps derive success, survival and meaning from life. global cultural homogeneity The ways in which things are similar, or becoming so, all across the world. For example, Nikes and Adidas are shoes that people all-over the globe wear. They are brands, like fast food, that we commonly identify with. Think of all the kinds of material culture that is much the same across the world. The same, too, for linguistic culture (e.g. the global predominance of English and French in professional contexts across the world). We have growth universally in companies such as IKEA and McDonalds trended as the same. local cultural heterogeneity Not everything is alike. For example, New York is ethnically heterogenous. Montreal is linguistically heterogenous. Jerusalem is religiously heterogenous. evoked culture The notion that all people, regardless of where they are from, have certain biologically encoded behavioral repertories that are potentially accessible to them, and that these repertoires are engaged when the appropriate situational conditions arise. The notion that all people have certain biologically encoded behavioral repertoires that are potentially accessible to them. Ex.) Importance of physical attractiveness in selecting a mate. The notion of health is perceived by more physical attractiveness. transmitted culture The notion that people learn about particular culture practices through social learning or by modeling the behavior of others who live near them. Has to do with social learning, from person to person. People come to learn about particular cultural practices through social learning or by modeling others who live near them. Unlike evoked culture, transmitted culture can travel with people when they move to new environments. People can bring their transmitted ideas with them, and cultures can spread past their initial set of geographic conditions. longevity Stable and long lasting. Long lasting entities. Genes last the life-time of a cell. When organisms reproduce, genes are copied to their offspring. fidelity Highly accurate. The replication must be error-free and the same each time. fecundity Power to reproduce. The ability to self-replicate which makes them more susceptible to be more common in the future. functional universal The second level of universality, which states that a given cognitive tool exists across cultures, and is used to solve the same problem across cultures, but is more accessible to people from some cultures than others, exists in multiple cultures. Used to solve the same problem. more accessible to people from some cultures than others. Equal in function, purpose and cognitive availability and tool in all cultures but varies in accessibility and occurs with differing frequencies across cultures- It is used to solve the same problem across cultures, yet it is more accessible to people from some cultures than others. This cognitive tool serves the same function everywhere, although it may not be used that much in some cultures. central processing mechanism An abstract and transcendent universal property that enables people to think , feel, and act. Ex.) Computers that have a software/hardware that allows them to monitor all programs. Cultural-Level Measures Technique that focuses on cultural messages. Performing a study to understand what cultural experiences are like. Technique that focuses on cultural messages. (Ex.: TV program, music, lyrics) Ex.) Music of working class vs. upper-middle class. Researchers asked participants of both upper and middle class about what kind of music they listened to. The rock and country genre music was analyzed in terms of themes of resilience or uniqueness. Higher SES demonstrated a higher interest in rock music wiht themes of uniqueness. Cultural Priming Activation of cultural ideas within participants. Priming works by making certain ideas more accessible to participants and depending how meaningful these ideas are to a culture, can investigate what happens when people start to think about certain cultural ideas. When cultural ideas are activated that are more common in another culture people start thinking in ways that are more similar to the thinking of people from other cultures. UNPACKAGING STUDIES Studies that try to explain why cultural differences occur, looking at the range of variables that might account for divergence in a particular aspect. The goal is finding and understanding the differences that exist "Why do these differences occur?" Certain societies are more interdependent or independent. Individualistic cultures & Collectivistic cultures CROSS CULTURAL VALIDATION STUDIES An effort is made by researchers to validate the measures. Ex.) SAT examinations in the U.S. translated and assessed in Japan Makes sure that surveys, tests and procedures can be valid in another culture--make test externally valid--asses the factor structure of the survey or scale. ETHNOGRAPHIES Observational field work done in the actual context being studied (naturalistic settings), focus on how individuals interrelate in their own environment (and the influence of this environment), phenomenological perspective-from the participant's point of view, difficult to interpret/analyze, time consuming/expensive, can influence subject behavior. Descriptive studies of human behavior, interrelationships, and life ways. Ex.) SAT examinations in the U.S. translated and assessed in Japan Key Issues in Cross-Cultural Comparisons Three goals of psychology To create a body of knowledge to describe, train and predict the way people think or feel, and explain human behavior and explain why they behave a certain way, in effort to predict how they act in different situations Also, helps implement counseling to improve peoples lives To apply universal functions within human beings 1. To create a body of knowledge ◦ To describe, explain, and predict the way people think, feel, and act 2. To apply knowledge ◦To improve people's lives 3. To seek laws of human behavior (implicit) ◦ To find universals Three obstacles that discouraged psychologists from addressing cultural variables in research General Psychology has the tendency to focus on the individual vs. the group; ignores environmental/ social influences and cultural context It's difficult to conduct research when it comes to sampling (who to elect) and also how to translate the language or meaning of the content Research in general takes a lot of investment. Money, extensive literature familiarity; and reinforcing stereotypes and go beyond them; needs to be extremely familiar with other countries cultures traditions/ norms. This then leads to research to be hesitant and very challenging. 1. Focus on Individual; researchers ignore culture 2. Methodological; time, money, distances 3. Stereotypes Three shifts in psychology that led to greater research on culture and human behavior 1)Demographics 2)Globalization 3)Cultural diversity Global cultural homogeneity: Refers to certain cultural aspects that become homogeneity exported to different countries (ex. McDonald's, Sony, IKEA etc.) Local cultural heterogeneity: Greater diversity in smaller towns However, as places are behind more diverse, tension rises due to misunderstanding. There is a need for greater awareness in competency to infuse acceptance and decrease issues. [Ex. Workshops, Curriculum] Sacramento is the most racially intergraded Highest rates in inter-racial marriages and integrated & diverse neighborhoods There's a need for greater awareness of different cultures. Universal Behavior Behavior that is found to be true for all cultures. 1. Facial expressions 2. Aggression 3. Language use 4. Schizophrenia Performance Capacity Universal Behavior ◦ Etic approach The act of or behavior style is the same across all cultures. The act of or behavior capability. Ex.) Hearing, seeing, feeling Performance Style Culturally-relative Behavior ◦ Emic approach The way behavior is carried out and the meaning attached to it. The way behavior is carried out and the meaning attached to it. Ex.) But, the sound or direct of our voice may be different due to the range of elementary psychological functions. Indirect/direct communication styles Three possible explanations why humans have bigger brains vs. primate species of similar size 1. Social Brain Hypothesis - Those primates who were most successful at navigating the intricate and elaborate webs of social relationships to function well in a highly social community one must be able to outmaneuver others within it which requires attending to a highly complex series of relations. We have a need to interact and integrate with other people. This explains the complexity of primates social worlds. 2. Our reliance of fruit. Primates eat a lot of fruit that is nutrient rich, full of vitamins, carbohydrates. and calories. The challenge of these food s however is locating the trees. Perhaps the selection for big brains in primates was driven by the need for cognitive abilities that would help them keep a mental map of the short lived and patchily distributed fruit that was around them. 3. Abstract fruit. A number of primate species rely on food sources that require a fair bit of ingenuity to access them. For example, some primate food sources include nuts and seeds encased in hard shells that to be cracked open. These "extractive" food sources are often worth pursuing as they tend to be rich in protein and energy. Perhaps the cognitive skills needed to allow primates to extract these valuable foods served as the selective force for larger brains. The importance of the number 150 in human evolution We need to keep groups of 150 in human evolution in order for them to function at its best. Clans turn out to be about 150 people big. 150 is the # of living descendants that you would expect an ancestral couple to produce after four generations. If exceeding 150, peer pressure may arise along with the necessity of behavior regulation. Any groups that are too small lose the advantages of large number, and any groups that are larger become harder to manage. Ex.) Gore Tex companies build a new facility when employment numbers reach 150 due to the fact that unruly behavior can be controlled on the basis of personal loyalties and direct man-to-man contacts. How factors related to culture such as environment, population density, affluence, technology, and climate may have an impact on human behavior AFFLUENCE -Greater affluence= Individualism TECHNOLOGY -More widespread and sophisticated= Independent CLIMATE -Hotter climates= May organize activities according to temperature ENVIRONMENT Fewer natural resources = teamwork,interdependence POPULATION DENSITY Higher population density= hierarchy, in-groupness Three elements necessary for ideas to serve as successful replicators 1. Longevity - Long lasting entities. Genes last the life-time of a cell. When organisms reproduce, genes are copied to their offspring. 2. Fecundity - The ability to self-replicate which makes them more susceptible to be more common in the future. 3. Fidelity - The replication must be error-free and the same each time. Three ways cultures have been changing over recent decades. People have become smarter and more individualistic; Intelligence (Flynn effect), interconnected, individualistic. Increasingly interconnected ◦ Global cultural homogeneity ◦ Local cultural heterogeneity Cultures increasingly more individualistic ◦ Do you bowl alone? More intelligent ◦ Flynn effect -Increase in IQ with each generation Examples of universal behavior and culturally-specific behavior. UNIVERSAL: 1. Facial expressions 2. Aggression 3. Language use 4. Schizophrenia CULTURALLY SPECIFIC: 1. Romantic love 2. Types of parenting Emotions 4. Symptoms of depression Ex.) Gestures can be seen as culturally particular. cultural competence An understanding of how a patient's cultural background shapes his beliefs, values, and expectations for therapy. A set of congruent behaviors, attitudes, and policies that come together in a system among professionals that enables work in cross-cultural situations. The belief that people should not only appreciate and recognize other cultural groups but also be able to work effectively with them. • Attitudes/Beliefs • Knowledge • Skills Emic Approach Involves studying behaviors from within the culture. This approach is used to examine variations (if you think people act differently, use this approach). The assumption that behavior is considered to be true for or unique to a culture. Etic Approach Involves studying behavior from outside the culture and examining similarities and differences across cultures.Behavior is considered to be true. (if you think people act the same or are looking for universal behavior, use this approach). The assumption that behavior is considered to be true across cultures. ethnocentrism The tendency to assume that one's own culture and way of life represent the norm or are superior to all others. View from one cultural perspective. Judge behavior from specific perspective. Believe that own culture is better. Involves judging people from the same perspective and viewing others through your own cultural perspective, belief. ◦ View from one cultural perspective ◦ Judge behavior from specific perspective ◦ Believe that own culture is better · Try to understand others by ignoring biases and adopt a flexible ethnocentric view race Socially constructed. A key criterion of identification dependent upon social-cultural-political identification and not one that can be unambiguously determined by genetic classification. A social construction based on easily identifiable physical characteristics. A large group of people distinguished by certain similar and genetically transmitted physical characteristics. emulative learning (primates) More focus on the environment, not so much on the behavioral strategies. One focuses on events in a setting or environment when learning occurs, not the goals and behavioral strategies. The learning is focused on the environmental events that are involved- how the use of one object could potentially effect changes in the state of the environment- reproduce a behavior without knowing goals. The cultural explanation of the Colombian Airliner Avianca, Flight 052, accident on January 25th, 1990 Indirect Vs. Direct - Communication Difference in Style Case Study: Colombian Airline Avianca (linguistic cultural); Flight 052: January 25th, 1990 There was a big storm and airplane circled around JFK and a number of different airports because weather was so bad to land. An hr. and a half later, they ran out of fuel and time and were told to land. The descendent was so bad and crashed being only a 1/2 a mile away from the run-way. ** LOOK AT SCRIPT ON SLIDES ** Theory of mind Refers to the awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others. Allows us to understand other peoples perspectives.