Summary ICS
WHAT MAKES A THEORY
Theory = consists of a set of systematic, informed hunches about the way things work
Set of hunches ideas about an explanation
Informed taking in consideration what is already know
Systematic specification for relationships between concepts; the more specified, the
better
What does a theory do?
Theories as nets: we need theories to understand the world
Theories as lenses: theories influence how we see certain things, they put focus on certain
elements, and ignore others
Two theorists could analyse the same and depending on the lens, have a different outcome
Theories as maps: we need theories to guide us; they show us how things work and how
certain things are related
Communication = the relational process of creating and interpreting messages that elicit a
response
There are 5 central steps of communication:
o Messages without a message there is no communication
o Creation of messages the content
o Interpretation of messages how people perceive the message
o Relational process how does a message have an effect
o Messages that elicit a response the effect on people
There are four communication models: (there is conceptual overlap)
Transmission model
Communication is a process of transmitting messages
Message is determined by sender
Receivers processes this message as was intended by sender
newspaper, flyer, teacher giving a lecture
Expressive model
Communication as representation of shared beliefs within a society/group
Emphasis on performance of message (sender)
Emphasis on (shared) experience of message (receiver)
football game, concerts, festivals,
Publicity model
Communication as a tool to grab and hold attention
Competition between senders for attention of public, attention itself is more
important than the quality of the content
Receiver is a spectator rather than participant
ads, political leaders in a debate, commercials
, Reception model
Communication open to multiple interpretations; because of (social and cultural)
differences between receivers,the same message can have different meanings
Senders transmits message with a certain purpose/meaning
But it’s possible that receivers “read” the message in a different wat than intended
poetry, art (if interpreted in a different ways)
POWERFUL MEDIA (hypodermic needle theory)
Hypodermic needle theory: suggest that media messages are injected directly into the
brains of a passive audience
The classic view of powerful media:
o Powerful media reach everyone
o Defenceless passive audience
o Strong (and bad) effects
o Uniform effects “magic-bullet” or “hypodermic-needle” (metaphor)
Examples of powerful reactions to the media
Propaganda (WWI) more positive image of the war, considered powerful because
it changed the way people think
War of the worlds (1938) radio show caused panic about an invasion from mars
This way of thinking about media influences is no longer really accepted there is not that
much evidence:
- Media has not the same effects on everyone
- People are not defensive (people can think for themselves
- Powerful media is not reaching everyone
The empirical cycle:
Observation noticeable relations and questions
Induction from specific (observations) to general; theories that can explain the
relations
Deduction from general to specific: formulating expectations/hypothesis that can be
tested
Testing testing the variables of your
hypothesis; data collection Research question
Evaluation do the results support the
hypothesis or not
Induction: It may be that…Could x be causing y?
Analyze data
Reasoning from observations to a theory that
explains the observations THEORY
Observation pattern theory
Deduction:
Reasoning from a theory to observations that will Collect data Predictions/Hypothesis
test the theory; trying to find support for your theory
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