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HESI Biology AND AnatomyHESI Biology AND Anatomy Study Guide A+
BIOLOGY
Taxonomy:
is the classification of living and extinct organisms, otherwise known as biological classification or
the hierarchic organizational system.
- Kingdom
- Phylum
- Class
- Order
- Family
- Genus
- Species
Cells:
Organelles
Nucleus: the cell’s “command center”, stores the cell’s DNA. Controls all of the cell’s
activities, such as growth and metabolism, using the DNA’s genetic information. Within
the nucleus is a smaller structure called the nucleolus
Nucleolus: houses the RNA (ribonucleic acid). RNA helps convey the DNA’s orders to
the rest of the cell and serves as a template for protein synthesis.
Ribosomes: translates instructions to produce proteins, read RNA produced in the
nucleus and translate instructions in order to produce proteins, Bound ribosomes can be
found in the endoplasmic reticulum and Free ribosomes can be found in the cytoplasm
Rough ER: are studded with ribosomes and are involved with protein manufacture.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) function involves manufacturing and packaging, including
the synthesis of lipids and hormones which are used for the production of new cellular membranes.
Golgi apparatus(“post office of the cell”) : responsible for packaging proteins into vesicles and
sending them out to the correct destinations within the cell, where the proteins are used to carry out
the requisite cellular functions.
Mitochondria: facilitate the production of ATP, the main source of chemical energy in living
organisms.
, HESI Biology AND Anatomy
Chromatin: efficiently package DNA into a small volume to fit into the nucleus of a cell and
protect the DNA structure and sequence. Packaging DNA into chromatin allows for mitosis and
meiosis, prevents chromosome breakage and controls gene expression and DNA replication.
Plasma Membrane: A double layer of lipids that separates the cell interior from the outside
environment. This double layer consists largely of specialized lipids called phospholipids.
Reproduction:
Sexual Reproduction: Meiosis
Asesual Reproduction: Mitosis and Binary fission
Which stage of mitosis is occuring when the chromosomes begin separating and the
chromatids are considered separate chromosomes?
Anaphase
DNA:
Four nitrogen bases of DNA: Adenine, Thymine, Guanine, and Cytosine (AT, GC)
- When DNA molecules make copies of themselves, they expose their nucleotide bases.
With the nucleotide bases exposed, new DNA nucleotides bind to them through
obligatory base pairing, which is coordinated with DNA polymerase. This process forms
two new DNA molecules, which are distributed to two daughter cells.
Ribonucleic acid (RNA): is a molecule that acts as the genetic code's messenger.
- Four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil
genetic expression:
- multiple alleles
- Pleiotropy: production by a single gene of two or more apparently unrelated effects.
, HESI Biology AND Anatomy
- Epistasis: is a phenomenon that consists of the effect of one gene being dependent on the
presence of one or more 'modifier genes' (genetic background)
- polygenic inheritance
Photosynthesis:
Photosynthesis consists of two different stages:
- Light reactions: convert solar energy to chemical energy. The cell accomplishes the
production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by absorbing light and using that energy to
split a water molecule and transfer the electron, thus creating nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and producing ATP.
- Calvin cycle: These molecules are then used in the Calvin cycle to produce sugar.
Respiration:
1. Glycolysis: The first step is the conversion of glucose to pyrulular energy in the process
called glycolysis. Glycolysis takes place in the cytosol of the cytoplasm and produces
two molecules of ATP, two molecules of pyruvate, and two molecules of NADH.
(TWO, TWO,TWO)
2. Citric acid cycle (the Krebs cycle): In step two, the pyruvate is transported into the
mitochondria and used in the first of a series of reactions known as the Krebs cycle. This
cycle takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria, and for a single consumed glucose
molecule, two ATP molecules, six molecules of carbon dioxide, and six NADH
molecules are produced.
3. Electron transport chain: The third and final step begins with the oxidation of the NADH
molecules to produce oxygen and finally to produce water. The energy created here is
high. For every glucose molecule, 28 to 32 ATP molecules can be produced. The
majority of ATP is created in this step.
This conversion results in overall ATP production numbers of 32 to 36 ATP molecules for every
glucose molecule consumed.
ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Histology: the study of tissues
Tissue:
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