CSET Spanish V Questions And Answers Gradae CSET Spanish V Questions And Answers Graded A+!!A+!!

CSET Spanish V Questions ACSET Spanish V Latino - ANS Denotes all persons living in the U.S. whose origins can be traced to the Spanish-speaking regions of Latin America, including the Caribbean, Mexico, Central America, and South America. Hispanic - ANS Created by the U.S. federal government in the early 1970s in an attempt to provide a common denominator to a large and highly diverse population with a connection to the Spanish Language. Considered a somewhat narrow indicator by those who prefer the term Latino. Familismo - ANS The term Latinos use to describe their supreme collective loyalty to extended family. Marianismo - ANS Refers to the high value Latino women place on being dedicated, loving, and supportive wives and mothers Fatalismo - ANS Used to express Latino's belief that the individual can do little to alter fate. This mindset manifests in health beliefs and behaviors in significant ways. Simpatia - ANS Refers to an emphasis on politeness and pleasantness even in the face of stress. Latinos expect healthcare provider to demonstrate this. Culturally Competent Skills - ANS One's abilities and behaviors applied when interacting with culturally diverse persons Cultural Competence - ANS Understanding a client's behaviors, thoughts, beliefs and values demonstrated through attitudes, knowledge and behavior. Language (importance of culture) - ANS Functions as a channel to illustrate and convey a sense of experiences and emotions. Acculturation - ANS A complex process of change on various levels including individual and family. It is the process in which immigrating individuals acclimate to cultural norms and practices of a new host country. This process can be a difficult experience for a variety of reasons, conflicting cultural values and expectations, legal status, separating from family and family conflict relating to the different levels of this between generations. Traditional roles and the collectivistic values of the Latino culture clash with the individualistic values of mainstream America. Traditional Latino Cultural Values - ANS Latino culture is rich with long-established traditions and beliefs highlighting strong family bonds, the value of personal relationships, religion and a collectivistic orientation. 5 Concepts from Literature - Traditional core cultural values (Latino culture) - ANS Cultural values familismo, personalismo, respeto, confianza, and simpatia shape and guide the lives, attitudes and behaviors of Latinos. Families and communities follow a structured social system based on gender, generation, education/profession and authority. Personalismo - ANS Emphasizes the importance and value of close relationships. Characterized as building and maintaining meaningful, close interpersonal relationships. Ex. Latinos show affection and warmth by touching and greeting one another with a kiss on the cheek. It embodies loyalty, thoughtfulness, respect and reciprocity which establish and reinforce mutual feeling and solidarity. Respeto - ANS The acknowledgement of authority and respect for the hierarchy system within the family and community. Latinos abide by social order which recognizes the differential treatment of others based on gender, generation, and education/profession. Children will often use formal titles, Senor/Don or Senora/Dona and avoid eye contact when addressing authority figures. Requesting la bendicion from parents, aunts, uncles, grandparents and loved ones is a gesture that mirrors respect, love, and family devotedness. This blessing is meant to give protection and/or approval from those who are respected or hold a position of authority. Simpatia - ANS Refers to the importance to maintain harmony, politeness, pleasantness and agreeableness in social relationships. It entails a balance of obedience and compassion for the feeling of others. It is common for Latinos to avoid hostility and confrontations particularly with an authority figure. Confianza - ANS A critical component of Latino relationships. Mutual trust and dependability. Mutual trust and respect are attributes that determine the quality of relationships. Familismo - ANS Family is considered the core of the Latino culture and is valued above all else. It is defined by a profound sense of family respect, obligation, and loyalty. Family dynamics and structures tend to follow patriarchal gender roles which are defined by marianismo and machismo. Families are large close-knit networks composed of people related by blood and marriage as well as non-related family members - godparents (compadrazgo), informally adopted children and close friends. It is common to hold large-scale family celebrations for holidays, birthdays, baptisms, communions, confirmations, and graduations. Families rely on one another to provide various supports against hardships. Elders are greatly respected and cherished by the entire family. Latinos are less likely to utilize assisted living or nursing home facilities and tend to be the primary caregiver. Machismo - ANS Males lead the household, protect and provide for the family and make all major decisions. Describes traditional attitudes about Latino males characterized by courage, honor, and pride. Marianismo - ANS Describes set of behaviors and responsibilities for Latina women. It is conceptualized from the Roman Catholic interpretation of the Virgin Mary. The Virgin Mary is an essential religious and cultural icon symbolizing strength, pride, freedom, female modesty, virtue, and self-sacrifice. Latinas are socialized and groomed to become mothers and wives. They are responsible for taking care of household chores and children, keeping the family together and continuing family tradition. Language - ANS Latinos place great importance on preserving the Spanish language across generations. It plays a vital role in connection Latinos to their culture. Bilingual Latinos switch between Spanish and English especially during and emotional situation. Many phrases and words convey a particular valence that can only be captured in Spanish. Spirituality and Religion - ANS Catholicism remains the prevailing religion of Latino-Americans. However, they are steadily declining while the evangelical Protestant and unaffiliated communities are increasing. This change is believed to be connected to the mainstream, individualistic culture of America influencing younger American-born English-speaking Latinos. Latinos typically have an influential relationship with their conception of God. Latinos engage in a variety of spiritual practices, including traditional religion and spiritual folklore like santeria, curanderismo, and espiritismo. Spirituality is interrelated with the Latino culture and often expressed through dichos, personalismo, familismo, simpatico, respeto, and confianza. Spirituality is a source of strength and support that involves a lifelong mutual obligation for maintaining personal and family well-being. It remains a source of hope and strength during difficult times. Corridos - ANS A form of narrative song or verse popular in Mexico and the southwestern United States. Related to the Spanish epic ballads know as romances. A narrative ballad, generally consisting of regular verses of four octosyllabic lines, beginning with a verse setting the them, then telling a story, and ending with a despedida (farewell). Corridos were often recited rather than sung; when sung, they are typically performed acapella or accompanied by stringed instruments, most commonly guitars. If performed in regular dance meters, they are commonly set to waltz or polka rhythms. In the 20th century, the corrido style became associated with the various styles grouped as ranchera music, roughly equivalent to Anglo country and western music. This includes mariachi, a commercial style featuring guitars, violins, and trupets; norteño, played by trios or quartets on accordion, bajo sexto (a sortof twelve-string guitar), bass, and sometimes drums and saxophone; duetos, accompanied by guitars and often bass; and banda, a West Coast style accompanied by trumpets, clarinets, valve trombones, tuba, and drums. Corridos History - ANS The Mexican corrido seems to have emerged as a distinct style in the early or mid-19th century and reached a peak of popularity during the Mexican Revolution (), during which virtually every major figure and battle was commemorated in verse. A new waves of corridos emerged in the 1970s, often performed by commercial recording artists and commemorating drug traffickers (thus, the songs are generally knows as narcocorridos) but also composed and performed by amateurs and semiprofessionals and dealing with local events and characters or broader issues such political corruption and immigration to the U.S. Many scholars believe the corridor form emerged in the Texas - Tamaulipas - Nuevo Leon border region and overlapped and influenced the English-language cowboy ballads of that region. Corridos Themes - ANS The most popular corrido theme has been heroic narratives, often commemorating the death of the protagonist. Other common themes include topical events, horse races, and natural disasters. Nonnarrative Corridos - ANS (1) To celebrate a town or event and (2) those known as the corrido de amistad (friendship corrido), a subgenre of the narcocorrido which emerged in the 1990s and simply celebrates its protagonist (often but not always connected with the Mexican underworld) without telling a story. Retablos - ANS Comes from the Latin retro-tabula meaning "behind the altar" Originally it referred to paintings placed behind the altar of churches in the early Middle Ages. In the 12th and 13th century it became just any painted work associated with an altar or sacred image They come in two forms: Santos and Ex-votos Santos continue to be displayed in churches and homes throughout Latin America, but ex-votos died out in most placed during the 19th century, except in Mexico, where votive paintings and practices continue to thrive. Today retablos popularization shifted the medium to tin, which remains the classic expression for ex-votos. Any surface may be used to prepare an offering like wood, Masonite, cardboard, paper, and even plastic. Another votive tradition: representation of milagros to a holy image as an act of supplication or thanksgiving. They are small charms or talismans made of cast metal in the shape of some object or thing of consternation to the votary. Retablos: Santos - ANS They are representations of holy figures, such as Christ, the Virgin, the Holy Family, or any one of a multitude of saints They were originally placed around the altar as objects of veneration. Over time they were moved outside the church as wealth parishioners commissioned paintings for veneration at home Today, as cheaper means of production became available, they made their way into the homes of common folk. Retablos: Ex-Votos - ANS Remained confined to churches and religious shrines and served the dual purpose of making public the miraculous powers of a religious icon and thanking that icon for a favor received Votaries would prepare or commission a painting recounting the event and place it before the holy image as an act of thanksgiving The classic votive retablo consists of a depiction of the miraculous holy image, along with a text describing what happened. As with santos, the practice of using ex-votos to testify and give thanks began in the upper classes and spread to the masses over time. Both traditions began in Europe and were brought to the Americas during Spanish colonization where they blended with indigenous beliefs and practices Cesar Chavez - ANS An American labor leader, community organizer, and Latino American civil rights activist. Along with Dolores Huerta, he co-founded the National Farm Workers Association, which later merged to become the United Farm Workers Union. Born to a Mexican-American family of migrant farm laborers Dedicated his life's work to improving conditions for the legions of farmworkers who kept fresh food on the tables across America - while they often went hungry, living and laboring in abysmal conditions and being paid unlivable wages He molded his methods on the non-violent civil disobedience of Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. Employing strikes, boycotts, marches, and fasts to draw attention to La Causa. His work and that of the United Farm Workers (the union he helped found) succeeded where countless efforts in the previous century had failed: improving pay and working conditions for farm laborers in the 1960s and 1970s and paving the way for landmark legislation in 1975 that codified and guaranteed agricultural workers' right to unionize. Cesar Chavez: Key events - ANS 1946 - Joins the U.S. Navy and serves for two years at the end of WWII in a segregated unit. When service ends, he returns to his agricultural work 1952 - starts working for the Community Service Organization, a Latino civil rights group that organized communities around issues such as voter registration, immigration and police abuse. Becomes the group's national director 1962 - Resigns from CSO, uses life savings of $1200 to form the National Farm Workers Association in Delano 1965 - The NWFA under Chavez and Dolores calls for a trike against grape growers, joining the Agricultural Workers Organization Committee, a Filipino American labor group. Field workers earned as little as 40c/hr. 1966 - leads strikers on a 340-mile march from Delano to Sacramento to bring awareness to La Causa of farmworkers. The NWFA also merges with the AWOC to form the United Farm Workers 1967 - Chavez calls for a nationwide boycott of non-union California table grapes. He sends UFW workers to cities across the country to raise awareness. This gave greater consciousness of racism and economic inequity. 1968 - In February and March, Chavez fasts for 25 days to rededicate and recommit himself to the struggle for justice through nonviolence. He loses 25 pounds. Sen. Robert F. Kenney joins him at the Mass where Chavez breaks his fast. 1970 - After 5 years, the strike and boycott against grape owners ends in victory for the UFW. The union is able to secure broader rights: to organize and bargain collectively, in addition to better wages. Calls for a nationwide boycott of lettuce 1972 - Chavez fasts for a second time, for 24 days, to protest an Arizona law that bans farmworkers from organizing, boycotting, or striking. 1975 - California passes the state's landmark Agricultural Labor Relations Act, which establishes and protects t Rigoberta Menchu - ANS A K'iche' Indigenous feminist and human rights activist for Guatemala. Has dedicated her life to publicizing the rights of Guatemala's Indigenous peoples during and after the Guatemalan Civil War, and promoting Indigenous rights internationally. Born to a poor Indian peasant family, and raised in the Quiche brand of the Mayan culture. Became involved in social reform activities through the Catholic Church, and became prominent in women's rights movement when still only a teenager. Such reform work aroused considerable opposition in influential circles. The Menchu family was accused of taking part in guerrilla activities and Rigoberta's father, Vicente, was imprisoned and tortured for allegedly having participated in the execution of a local plantation owner. After his release he joined the Committee of the peasant Union (CUC). In 1979 Rigoberta also joined. 1979 - Her brother was arrested, tortured and killed by the army. He next year her father was killed when security forces in the capital stormed the Spanish Embassy where he and some other peasants were staying. Afterwards, her mother also died after having been arrested, tortured, and raped. Rigoberta became more active in the CUC, taught herself Spanish as well as other Mayan languages than her native Quiche. 1980 - she figured prominently in a strike the CUC organized for better conditions for farm workers on the Pacific Coast. 1981 - she was active in large demonstrations in the capital. She joined the radical 31st of January Popular Front where she educated the Indian peasant population in resistance to massive military oppression. Had to go into hiding in Guatemala, and then flee to Mexico. Became organizer abroad of resistance to oppression in Guatemala and the struggle for Indian peasant peoples' rights. 1982 - took part in the founding of Juan Doming Peron - ANS Was an Argentine Army general and politician. After severing in several government positions, including Minister of Labor and Vice president, he was elected President of Argentina. Founder and leader of the Peronist movement. Born in Lobos, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina on Oct. 1895. Served in Chile as a military attaché and travelled to Italy to observe the rise of Fascists and Nazis during 1938-40 He returned to Argentina in 1941, used his acquired knowledge to achieve the rank of colonel, and joined the United Officers Group (GOU) GOU - a secret military lodge that engineered the 1943 coup that overthrew the ineffective civilian government of Argentina. In 1944 as a protégé of Pres. Gen. Edelmiro J.Farrell, Peron became minister of war and then vice president. He had initially taken the minor role of secretary of labor and social welfare. He was clearly bidding for undisputed power, based on the support of the underprivileged laborers and on his popularity and authority in the army. 1945 - Addressed 300,000 people and promised to lead the people to victory in the pending presidential election and to build with them a strong and just nation. Also married actress Eva Duarte (Evita). 1946 - Peron is elected president with 56% of the popular vote. He set Argentina on a course of industrialization and state intervention in the economy, calculated to provide greater economic and social benefits for the working class. Adopted a strong anti-United States and anti-British opposition with justicialismo (social justice) and preached of a "Third Position," an authoritarian and populist system between communism and capitalism. Peron reshaped the country by brining needed benefits to industrial workers in the form of wage increases and fringe benefits. Nationalized the railroads and other utilities and finan Maria Eva Duarte Peron (Eva Peron y Evita) - ANS The wife of Argentine President Juan Peron and First Lady of Argentina from 1946 until her death in 1952. She was born in poverty in the rural village of Los Toldos, in the Pampas, Argentina as the youngest of five children. During her husband's first term a president became a powerful though unofficial political leader, revered by the lower economic class. Her family struggled financially, and the situation worsened when her father Juan Ibarguren died when she was 6 years old. When she was 15 she traveled to Buenos Aires to pursue an acting career and eventually began performing steadily in radio parts. She married Juan Peron in 1945. Juan was ousted by a coup of rival army and navy officers and briefly taken into custody, after his release he entered the presidential race. Eva was active in the campaign and she won the adulation of the masses, whom she addressed as los descamisados. Juan was elected and took office in June 1946. Eva acted as de facto minister of health and labor, awarding generous wage increases to the unions who responded with political support for Peron. She replaced the Sociedad Beneficia with her own Eva Peron Foundation which was supported by "voluntary" union business contributions plus a substantial cut of the national lottery and other funds. These resources were used to establish thousands of hospitals, schools, orphanages, homes for the aged, and other charitable institutions. Eva was largely responsible for the passage of the women's suffrage law and formed the Peronista Feminist Party in 1949. She also introduced compulsory education into all Argentine schools. In 1951, although dying of cancer, she obtained the nomination for vice president, but the army forced her to withdraw her candidacy. Oscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdamez - ANS A prelate of the Catholic Church in El Salvador who served as the 4th Archbishop of San Salvador. Spoke out against poverty, social injustice, assassinations, and torture amid growing war between left-wing and right-wing forces. He was assassinated on March 24, 1980 and declared a Saint by the Catholic Church in 2018. For many people of El Salvador and Latin America, Romero was already a saint. On Oct. 14th, with Pope Francis declaring Romero a saint, the Vatican finally caught up with what so many already knew: Romero is a Saint of the Americas. Romero is the first Latin American declared a satin by the Catholic Church. The announcement comes as a source of pride for the people of El Salvador and of Latin America. He was a prophet who struggled for the poor and was assassinated by the right-wing for his work. A death squad sniper assassinated Archbishop Romero in 1980 and held mass in the Church of the Divine Providence in San Salvador. Before his assassination Romero gave one of his strongest sermons, calling the military to end the repression. The military's and oligarchy's hated of Romero spilled over into his funeral. The military opened fire on over 100,000 mourners as they visited the National Cathedral to pay their respect for their pastor. Romero was ordained a priest in 1943 at the age of 25. He served for 20 years in the department of San Miguel, he was close with the local elite but continued to advocate for the poor. in 1971 the new theology had a name: Liberation Theology. It brought together a Marxist critique of political economy and society with the Christian faith. This was met with intense resistance from the U.S. and the Catholic Church due to the Marxist elements. In this context Romero was appointed the Archbishop. The ruling elite and Catholic Church saw him as the best option t Brief Mexican history - ANS Before 1854 Arizona, California, Colorado, Nevada, New Mexico, Texas, Utah and Wyoming were all actually part of Mexico. Through war, treaties and land purchases around 100,000 Mexicans came under the jurisdiction of the U.S. They were now new American citizens who faced racial discrimination including loss of property, low wages, and lynching. In 1890 the need for cheap labor had drawn another 75,000 Mexicans to the U.S. After the Mexican revolution of 1910 another massive wave of immigrants sought relative safety here. During the Great Depression in the 1920s about 80,000 Mexicans repatriated each year, splitting families and communities apart Mexicans played a vital role in our culture and economy, filling many blue collar jobs and serving their country honorably in WWII, Korea, Vietnam, and the Gulf Wars. They still continue to struggle against their treatment as second class citizens. They lag behind other Americans in income, education, and home ownership. With over 18 million Mexicans living in the U.S. they are our country's fastest growing minority group. Mexican American Immigration, and Discrimination begins - ANS Around 1848 when the U.S. wont the Mexican-American War. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which marked the war's end, granted 55% of Mexican territory to the U.S. Mexicans who stayed became citizens. 19th century - political events in Mexico made emigration to the U.S. popular and American employers like Southern Pacific Railroad needed cheap labor to help build tracks. They sent recruiters to Mexico to convince Mexicans to emigrate b/c immigration lows banned importing contracted labor. Latinos were barred entry into Anglo establishments and segregated into urban barrios in poor areas. Though Latinos were critical to the U.S. economy and often were American citizens, everything from their language to the color of their skin to their countries of origin could be used a pretext for discrimination. Those who spoke Spanish were lazy, stupid, and undeserving. Mob Violence against Latinos - ANS Mob violence was common among Spanish-speaking people during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. They estimate that the number of Latinos killed by mobs reached the thousands but documentation only exists for 547 cases. The violence began during California's Gold Rush just after CA became part of the U.S. White miners begrudged former Mexicans a share of the wealth yielded by Californian mines. Ex: a mob of vigilantes accused Josefa Segovia of murdering a white man. After a fake trial, they marched her through the streets and lynched her. Over 2,000 men gathered to watch, shouting racial slurs. Other were attacked on suspicion of fraternizing with white women or insulting white people. In 1911 a mob of over 100 people hanged a 14 years old boy, Antonio Gomez, after he was arrested for murder. Townspeople lynched him and dragged his body through the streets of Thorndale, TX. These horrific acts of cruelty lased until the 1920s, when the Mexican government began pressuring the U.S. to stop the violence. Forced Deportations in the late 1920s and 30s (Mexican history) - ANS Late 1920s - anti-Mexican sentiment spiked as the Great Depression began. As the stock market tanked and unemployment grew, Anglo-Americans accused Mexicans and other foreigners of stealing American jobs. Mexican-Americans were discouraged even forbidden from accepting charitable aid. The U.S. forcibly removed up to 2M people of Mexican descent from the country - up to 60% of whom where American citizens. Referred to as the "repatriations" the removals were anything but voluntary. Private employers drove their employees to the border and kicked them out. Local gov'ts cut off relief, raided gathering places or offered free train fare to Mexico. Colorado ordered all of its "Mexicans" to leave the state in 1936 and blockaded its southern border to keep people from leaving. INS officials deported about 82,000 people during the period. Some light-skinned Mexican-Americans attempted to pass themselves off as Spanish, not Mexican, in an attempts to evade enforcement. People with disabilities and active illnesses were removed from hospitals and dumped at the border. 1936 deportations finally ended, up to 2M Mexican-Americans had been "repatriated." Latino Children Suffered in Segregated Schools - ANS Latino people were excluded from restaurants, movie theaters, and schools. There was no segregation laws in the southwestern U.S. Latino students were expected to attend "Mexican schools" throughout the southwest beginning in the 1870s. They were set up to serve children of Spanish-speaking laborers, rural ranches, and later spread to cities as well. Mendez v. Westminster - ANS 1940s - 80% of Latino children in places like Orange County, CA attended separate schools. Among them was Sylvia Mendez, a young girl who was turned away from an all-white school in the county. Instead of going to the pristine, well-appointed 17th Street Elementary, she was told to attend Hoover Elementary - a dilapidated, two-room shack The bare-bones facilities offered to students like Mendez lacked basic supplies and sufficient teachers. Many only provided vocational classes or did not offer a full 12 years of instruction. Children were forced to attend based on factors like their complexion and last name. Medez's parents fought back. In 1945 with four other families, they filed a class action lawsuit against four Orange County school districts. Their goal: Ensure that all children could attend CA schools regardless of race. In court, school officials claimed that Latino students were dirty and infected with diseases that put white students at risk. They argued Mexican-American students didn't speak English and were thus not entitled to attend English-speaking schools. Medez's attorney countered with testimony from experts in social science. He argued that the policy trampled on Latino children's Constitutional rights. When Carol Torres, a 14-year-old Latino girl, took the stand, she immediately proved that Mexican-American students in the district could and di speak English. In 1946 Judge McCormick rule that the school districts discriminated against Mexican-American students and violated their constitutional rights. Though the school districts challenged the ruling, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals agreed with McCormick. Thanks to Mendez v. Westminster School District, CA officially ended all segregation in its schools. Mendez who was 8 when the lawsuits began, later told reporters that she thought h Cowboy Culture Origins - ANS Much of what people consider quintessential "cowboy culture" is actually derived from Spanish, Mexican, and Mexican-American traditions. Cattle were brought to Mexico in the earliest days of colonialism. Cattle were important for their tallow (for candles), their hides (for shoes and other leather goods) and their meat. Under first Spain, then Mexico, then the U.S., the land that is today Texas is the home of Mexican-American cowboy culture. Many terms such as "lariat" (from la riata) and "buckaroo" (from vaquero) come from Spanish. Cattle-herding practices spread west to the shores of CA when it was still part of Mexico. Mexican Americans and WWII - ANS Mexican Americans were drafted into or volunteered for the U.S. armed forces, where they had the highest percentage of Congressional Medal of Honor winners of any minority in the U.S. The war fueled Latino migration into the U.S. As defense industries grew and many workers went off to war, industries experienced acute labor shortages. Women and African Americans entered the industry in large numbers to help address these shortages. Temporary workers from Puerto Rico and Mexico had a U.S. and Mexico labor agreement through the Bracero Program in 1942 The Bracero Program brought Mexicans for work in Agriculture but they were also employed in various industries like on the railroads. Since most war-related job opportunities existed in urban areas, there was considerable migration of Mexican Americans to the cities in the 1940s and 50s. During WWII a serious incident called the Zoot-Suit Riot occurred. Named after the type of clothing known as "zoot suit" worn by many young Mexican Americans of the 1940s. In 1943 a dispute between Mexican American and Anglo erupted into a widespread rioting. Anglo members of the armed forces were soon joined by civilians in a spree of attacking and beating Mexican Americans wherever they were found. After WWII with the return of the troops, railroad workers were required to return to Mexico. Like many African Americans, Mexicans had sacrificed for their adopted country, they began to want more of the American Dream: better education, better jobs, and an end to racism and discrimination. The termination of war brought the G.I. Bill - this act provided veteran with opportunities for employment, high school and college education, job training, and resources for purchasing homes and life insurance. Many Mexican Americans took advantage of this and for the first time entered colleg Mexican History - Intro - ANS Made up of 31 states and one federal district It is the third largest country in Latin America and has one of the largest populations - more than 100M - making it the home of more Spanish speakers than any other nation in the world. Many of Mexico's rural areas are still inhabited by indigenous peole whose lifestyles are quite similar to those of their ancestors Many pre-Columbian ruins still exist throughout Mexico, including the ancient city of Teotihuacan and the Mayan pyramids at Chichen Itza and Tulum. Reminders of the colonial past are evident in the architecture of towns like Taxco and Queretaro. Mexican History - Early History - ANS The Olmecs - known as Mexico's first society, settled on the Gulf Coast near what is now Veracruz. Remebered for the giant head sculptures they carved from native stone. They had two main populatoin centers: San Lorenzo, which flourished from about 1200 to 900 B.C., and La Venta in Tabasco, which lasted until about 600 B.C. By 300 B.C., villages based on agriculture and hunting had sprung up throughout the southern half of Mexico. Monte Alban, home of to the Zapotec people, had an estimated 10,000 inhabitants. Between 100 B.C. and 700 A.D., Teotihuacan, the largest pre-Columbians city in the Americas, was constructed near present-day Mexico City. At its zenith, the population estimated at 200,000, the civilization is thought to have controlled a large portion of southern Mexico. The empire of Teotihuacan was overthrown in the 7th century, but the spectacular city survives today. The Mayans - considered the be pre-Columbian America's most brilliant civilization. They thrived between approx. 250 and 950 A.D. Developed a calendar and writing system and built cities that functioned as hubs for the surrounding farming towns. Religion played a central role in Mayan life, and altars were carved with significant dates, histories and elaborate human and divine figures. The Mayan civilization collapsed in the early 10th century, likely due to overpopulation and the resultant damage to the ecological balance. The Toltec Civilization - appeared in central Mexico near the 10th century and built the city of Tula, home to an estimated 30,000-40,000 people. One of their kings, Tezcatlipoca, is said to have ordered mass sacrifices of captured enemy warriors Becuse many Toltec architectural and rituralistic influences can be found at the Mayan site of Chichen Itza in northern Yucatan it is believed that Toltec exiles fled to Y Mexican History - Middle History - ANS Spaniard Hernan Cortez arrived at Veracruz in 1519. Aztec King Moctezuma II thought Cortes was the serpent god Quetzalcoatl so he was invited to Tenochtitlan. Cortes formed allies on his way to the city and in May 1521 Cortes and his followers attacked and conquered the Aztecs. He then colonized the area and named it Nueva Espana (New Spain). 1574 - Spain controlled a large portion of the Aztec empire and had enslaved most of the indigenous population. He diseases brought into the society by the Spaniards devastated the indigenous population of Nueva Espana, killing bout 24M people between 1521 and 1605. The Catholic Church's influence - missionaries built many monasteries and converted millions of people to Catholicism. Colonists in Nueva Espana who were born in Spain (peninsulares) clashed with Spaniards who had been born in Mexico (criollos). Many criollos had become rich and wanted equal political power, which now resided with the peninsulares. King Carlos III of Spain expelled the Jesuits from Nueva Espana in the late 1700s. Napoleon Bonaparte's occupation of Spain in 1808 compromised the country's political and economic structure which weakened Spain's grip on Nueva Espana. Mexican History - Recent History - ANS 1810 - Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest from the town of Dolores, issued a call to rebellion. In response, rebel leader Vicente Guerrero and defected royalist general Agustin de Iturbide collaborated to gain Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821. Together they drafted a Mexican constitution. 1822 - Iturbide declared himself emperor of the country. A year later Atonio Lopez de Santa Anna overthrew Iturbide and drew up a new constitution that established a federal Mexican republic composed of 19 states and four territories. Santa Anna served a president, squelching Texas' stand for independence in the battle of the Alamo during his last year in office. He was defeated by American forces during the Mexican-American war. By 1855 he went into exile. After Mexico's occupation by the French in the mid-1800s, Porfirio Diaz served as president from 1876 to 1909. Diaz was dictator who bestowed political favors on the very wealthy citizenry, largely ignored the poor and rule ruthlessly by force. Mexican Revolution 1910 - the 10-year civil war resulted in at least 2M casualties. In 1934 Lazarro Cardenas became president and reestablished the ancient ejido system, which established communally shared tracts of farmland. The system benefited both citizens and the economy. WWII - further stimulated the nation's development through the development of roads, the building of factories and the establishment of irrigation systems. Mexican History - Mexico Today - ANS Mexico's population has greatly increased since WWII. The distribution of wealth remains imbalanced. Due to negligible legislative assistance, the poor are generally unable to improve their socio-economic status. Ex. The state of Chiapas - problems caused by financial imbalance. 1994 - The Zapatista National Liberation Army rose up to challenge discrimination against Chiapa's poor. The rebellion was unsuccessful but Zapatistas continue to fight against imbalanced land ownership and power distribution with little success. They have an ever-growing problem of drug trafficking which was contributed to political and police corruption and helped widen the gap between the elite and the underprivileged. The building of foreign-owned factories and plants (maquiladoras) in some of Mexico's rural areas has helped redistribute some of the country's wealth. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994 increased Mexico's financial ties to the U.S. and Canada, but the Mexican economy remain fragile. Mexican economy with its growing industrial base, abundant natural resources, and variety of service industries, remains important to Latin America. Tourism is a major contributor to the Mexican economy. People flock to Mexico from all over the world to sample the country's cultural diversity, bask in the lush of tropical settings and take advantage of relatively low prices. U.S. tourists constitute the majority of visitors to the country. People used to travel to Mexico City but the capital city's reputation has suffered due to social and environmental problems; high levels of air pollution and crime. Tourists still flock to the beaches of the world-famous resorts in Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtaba-Zihuatanejo, Mazatlan, Cancun, and Puerto Escondido. Mexico - Facts and Figures - ANS Full name: United Mexican States Capital: Mexico City (Distrito Federal) Major cities: Mexico City, Guadalajara, Puebla, Tijuana, Juarez, Leon, Zapopan, Netzahualcoyotl, Monterrey. Border Countries: Belize and Guatemala to the southeast; United States to the North. Independence: declared on September 16, 1810 - Recognized by Spain on September 27, 1821 Mexico - Fun Facts - ANS The three colors of Mexico's flag: Green represents hope and victory. White stands for the purity of Mexican ideals. Red brings to mind the blood shed by the nation's heroes. The flag's dramatic emblem is based on the legend of how the Mexicans (or Aztecs) traveled from Aztlan to find the place where they could establish their empire. The god Huitzilopochtli advised them that a sign - an eagle devouring a serpent atop a Nopal cactus - would appear to them at the exact sport where they should begin construction. They came upon the exact scene and settled there, now called Mexico City, the capital. Mexico is the third largest country in Latin America after Brazil and Argentina At the beginning of the 21st century, Mexico's population surpassed 100M, and they have the largest population of Spanish speakers in the world. At 2,000 miles, the border between Mexico and the U.S. is the second-longest in the world. Mexicans comprise the largest group of legal immigrants in the U.S. Mexico is located in an area known as the Pacific "Ring of Fire." This region, one of Earth's most dynamic tectonic areas, is characterized by active volcanoes and frequent seismic activity. The highest point in the country, Citlaltepetl (aka Orizaba) and the active volcano Popocatepetl are among the many volcanic peaks in Mexico. Mexico is the world's leading producer of silver. An area called the Silver Belt - which encompasses Guanajuato and Zacatecas in the Mesa Central, Chihuahua in the Mesa del Norte and San Luis Potosi farther east - saw significant mining activity during the colonial period. Independence and Revolution of Mexico - ANS By the early 19th Century the local middle classes had grown tired of sharing their wealth with Spain. They wanted independence from Spain. The Creoles (those born in New Spain of Spanish parents) resented being considered inferior by those born in the European homeland. They saw opportunity in the Spanish war against Napoleon's invasion of 1808 The main protagonists of the Independence were the priests Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and Jose Maria Morelos. 1810 - Hidalgo freed the prisoners in the town of Dolores, locked up the Spanish authorities and called the people to rebel by ringing the church bells. Hidalgo started with 600 men, but soon had 100,000 and overran towns of central Mexico. Hidalgo was later caught and condemned the following year and was executed by firing squad on 1811. Morelos from the western city of Valladolid (now Morelia) led successful campaigns in 1812 and 1813 which included the capture of Acapulco. He was captured and shot on 1815. The independence movement continued under the Creole colonel Agustin de Iturbide. On 1821 the first independent gov't was named with Iturbide at the head. Independence was followed by 30 years of great political turmoil which included the Mexican-American War of in which Mexico lost Texas, California, and New Mexico to the victors. The liberal Benito Juarez, who would be elected president in 1861, promoted reform laws that were incorporated into the Constitution of 1857. As provisional president, he also reduced the powers of the Roman Catholic Church, and confiscated church property. 1864 - Austrian Archduke Maximilian was made Emperor with the backing of Napoleon III. He ruled Mexico until 1867, when he was defeated and shot after Napoleon pulled out his troops to fight a war with Prussia. The return of government of Juarez is aka the Res The Mexican-American War - ANS The Mexican-American War () marked the first U.S. armed conflict chiefly fought on foreign soil. It pitted a politically divided and militarily unprepared Mexico against the expansionist-minded administration of U.S. President James K. Polk who believed the U.S. had a "manifest destiny" to spread across the continent to the Pacific Ocean. A border skirmish along the Rio Grande started off the fighting and was followed by a series of U.S. victories. When the dust cleared, Mexico had lost about one-third of its territory, including nearly all of present-day California, Utah, Nevada, Arizona, and New Mexico. Modern Times - Mexico 20th Century Politics - ANS By 1920, the three main leaders of the revolution: Madero, Carranza, and Zapata, were dead. 1929 - the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) was formed as a way of consolidating the reforms that were included in the 1917 Constitution. PRI presidents embarked on a course of fervent nationalism which included the 1937 nationalization of the railways and in 1938 the expropriation of the oil industry from British and U.S. firms. PRI with pro-government unions and peasant organizations kept a tight control on power. Gov't was typically paternalistic, looked on to solve problems of farmers, workers, peasants, and even pirate business. 1950s and 1960s - period of industrialization promoted by state, coupled with stringent protectionism that lasted throughout most of the 1970s and part of the 1980s. 1994 - Mexico joined the U.S. and Canada in the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). It was also admitted into the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) PRI remained in power for 71 consecutive years until 2000 when the party lost the presidential election to the conservative National Action Party (PAN). This brought Mexico's first real democracy. PRI had moved far away from its socialist roots, courting foreign investment and having reversed most of the nationalizations during the previous 15 years. PAN governed for two six-year periods (sexenios) and was unseated again by PRI in 2012. PAN gov'ts were beset by an increase in violence and related to illegal drug trade, which has continued to present day. Mexico's Oil Industry - symbol of nationalism born of the Revolution. Underwent a boom in the 1970s and in the 21st century. Gov't dependence on oil income, which at one point provided 2/5s of the federal budget, created an unhealthy dependence on oil prices and led to a number of budg Mexican Education System: Overview - ANS Mexican schooling went through battles with the catholic church to the influence of socialism. The schooling system has increased in quality and stability in recent years. It is now regulated by the Secretaria de Educacion Publica or SEP. Public schools are completely secular, well-funded in urban areas and mandatory until age 18. Mexican Education System - ANS Pre-school is optional - available for children starting at age 3. Primary school is mandatory from ages 6-12 (grades 1-6) Middle school also mandatory for children 12-15 (grades 7-9) High School also mandatory ages 15-18 (grades 10-12). After attendance at University is possible but uncommon in rural areas of Mexico. University education in Mexico generally follows the US education model - four years to complete a bachelor's undergraduate level (Licenciatura), and two degrees at the postgraduate level, a two year Master's degree (Maestria), and a three year Doctoral degree (Doctorado). Mexican Education: Primary School (Primaria) - ANS Offered free of charge to children in Mexico and is mandatory for all children aged 6-12. It starts in grade one and ends in grade 6. New standards created by the SEP have seen more schools requiring a second language. This means half of the school day would be taught in Spanish while half is taught in a second language of choice (English, French, or Native American languages Tzotzil or Tzeltal). Mexican Education: Middle School (Secundaria) - ANS Begins at age 12 for Mexican students and usually consists of three years (grades 7-9). Students receive more focused and specific education, including courses on subjects like Physics, World History, and more. They also offer telesecundaria, or distance learning programs, for students aged 12-15. Mexican Education: High School (Preparatoria) - ANS It was not mandatory until very recently. It is now compulsory for all children in Mexico to complete their education through to the 12th grade. However, there are a wide variety of options available for specialized education. Two main types of High school programs: SEP Incorporated Preparatoria - curriculum is mandated and run by the Government via the Secretariat or Public Education or University Incorporated Preparatoria - they are closely affiliated with a local University, who establishes the curriculum. Mexican Education: Other options for High School - ANS Private School - you may choose from other minority programs such as the International Baccalaureate program. Vocation rather than higher education - there tecnologia and comercio programs that are designed to prepare students for a future outside higher education. Each of these programs carry different systems and methods of teaching, but in order to be accredited each must include a national subject and pass standard qualification as established by the SEP. Preparatoira allow students to select some degree of specialization. For schools that prepare students for higher educations (college or university), the first half of the year is dedicated to a common curriculum. These schools are often called Bachilleratos and allow students to focus on a specialization of their choice from physical or social sciences (chemistry, biology, commerce, philosophy, law, etc.) to artistic endeavors (literature, fine art, music, etc.) later in the school year. Mexican Education: Pros and Cons - ANS The number of students who complete their schooling is extremely low, and lower still is the number of students who choose to continue on to higher education after completing their compulsory coursework. The cause of this drop-off is often attributed to the lack of infrastructure in rural schools- much of Mexico's population lives in non-rural areas. Unless your child is bilingual, public school is often not the best option for expats or internationals, especially because these public schools often see corruption and underfunding. However, many internationals choose to send their child to public school for half a day while homeschooling for the other half. This allows children to learn Spanish while also integrating themselves in Mexican culture. Internationals also choose to send their children to private schools which offer stronger bilingual integration and have more funding. Mexican Education: Cost of Education - ANS Public schooling is free from grades 1-12. Students can purchase their own textbooks and school supplies. Private school fees vary from school to school, and the bilingual schools tend to be the most expensive. Expect to pay a first-time admission fee, annual reinscription fees, and traditional charges for things such as school transportation, after-school activities, and other student programs. Central American Countries: Map song - ANS Central America: Mexico - ANS Mexico City Central America: Guatemala - ANS Guatemala Central America: Honduras - ANS Tegucigalpa Central America: El Salvador - ANS San Salvador Central America: Nicaragua - ANS Managua Central America: Costa Rica - ANS San Jose Central America: Panama - ANS Panama Central America: Cuba - ANS Havana Central America: Dominican Republic - ANS Santo Domingo Central America: Puerto Rico - ANS San Juan Central America: Costa Rica - ANS Has no standing army. It is the primary tourist destination of Central America because it has long been the most stable that contains rain forests and other natural riches. Costa Rica is the oldest democratic republic in Central America. Its government is set up much like the U.S.'s. In some parts Costa Rica usted is used for everyone including family and close friends, and vos is almost always used instead of tu. Central America: Costa Rica History - ANS In 1823 Costa Rica became independent within the Central American Federation, in the Battle of Ochomongo. It was won by the republicans who wanted CR to be independent vs. the Imperialists who wanted CR to join Mexico. It took another 15 years for the Republic of Central America to collapse. At that point, in 1838, Costa Rica finally became a fully independent country. Once independent someone discovered the Central Valley was perfect for coffee and CR began to live up to its name. This wealth turned San Jose into a European-style city with boulevards and theaters. In 1858 US filibuster William Walker invaded Nicaragua to the north. In an attempt to take over CR he entered the country and was defeated. This gave birth to the drummer boy Juan Santamaria which today is celebrated as CR's national hero for giving his life while setting fire to Walker's stronghold. CR then settled and grew coffee, bananas, and pineapples and lived a quiet life. This peaceful life had remained uninterrupeted until the present day with a couple of excepetions. There was a short dictatorship from . And the Costa Rican Civil War in 1948. This was a short, viscous affair that killed over 2,000 people over the course of 44 days. The forces of Jose Figueres defeated Rafael Calderon and set Costa Rica on its modern course. The aftermath of the Civil War saw Figueres disband the Costa Rican army and create a new constitution. Today CR is a beacon of democracy in Central America and around the world. Central America: El Salvador - ANS As of July 2019 has the largest percentage of people in the U.S. on Temporary Protected Status. Most came after a devastating 2001 earthquake. The current administration has attempted to end TPS and send Salvadorans back home, but the situation is tied up in courts. Civil War: This war's roots can be traced to the income inequality cemented in the encomienda system of the colonial era, but the inequality grew worse than ever in the 19th century when El Salvador became a major producer of coffee. Wealth was held by landowners, not by the people working the fincas. This continued into the 20th century, and when communist ideas began to spread after the founding of the Soviet Union, poor workers in El Salvador saw a possible solution to their misery. Communist and communist-leaning officials began to be elected, but there was resistance from governments and businesses inside and outside the country. By the 1960s a military-led government had taken over El Salvador, and widespread voter fraud in the 1960s and 1970s ensured continued military or pro-military rule. Civil rights were shut down and death squads were formed to try to silence pro-communist groups and leftist sympathizers. The United States, with its economic and military might and constant charge to crush any communist uprisings, supported the Salvadoran military government. With support of U.S. dollars and military training, the Salvadoran army devolved into death squads that kidnapped and murdered protesters and suspected protesters from all walks of life. Countless civilians were murdered, and two particular famous cases drew international attention: the murder of Oscar Romero while he gave Mass and the rape and murder of four U.S. nuns doing humanitarian work in El Salvador. Guerrillas is the English term, and therefore the term you will hear Central America: El Salvador History - ANS During the 20th century, coffee was now king in Salvador. The decendats of the 14 famlies that used to rule during colonial El Salvador became the leaders of a coffee oligarchy. This gave them immense wealth while everyone else languished in poverty. These elite families selected their presidents from amongst their own. They built infrastructure throughout the country but also repressed the working people with anti-vagrancy laws to keep them from moving around and other tactics. El Salvador's economy was dependent on coffee, but only 2% of the population saw any profits from it. 98% saw nothing at all. The stock market crash in 1929 devastated the coffee market. Prices dropped and the Salvadoran economy tanked. The socialist activist Augustin Farabundo Marti led an army of poor indigenous and peasant people to revolt against the elites in 1932. This revolt was viciously put down by massacring 30,000 people. Between the massacre in 1932 and the 1970s, El Salvador's people suffered under a continuation of authoritarian presidents selected from the elite families of oligarchs. Most of these presidents were military strongmen and the country was in a state of dictatorship in all but name. Efforts to topple military rule in El Salvador came to a head in 1972. This was when the majority voted for the co-founder of the new Christian Democrat Party (PDC), Jose Duarte. The elites stole the election and denied him power. The regime arrested and tortured Duarte, and exiled him to Venezuela. His exile was the death blow to the thought that democracy in El Salvador could succeed w/o violence. The anti-military-rule faction started to organize underground, things came to a head in 1979 when the gov't fell to a combination of civilian and military officials that called themselves the Junta Revolucionaria de Gobierno ( Central America: Guatemala - ANS Today, Guatemala has the largest Mayan population in Central America. Many people speak Mayan languages and have limited proficiency in Spanish. Ladino or ladino mestizo refers to someone who identifies with mainstream mestizo culture rather than Mayan culture. They speak Spanish, may work in cities or large towns, and may have left Mayan cultural traditions behind (if they ever had them) in their attempt to conform for economic and cultural purposes. The class between ladino and traditional cultures is a major theme in Guatemalan society. The useof vos, tu, and (exclusive) usted varies by region of Guatemala, but the majority use vos. Central America: Guatemala History - ANS Civil War: Similar in cause and trajectory to the one in El Salvador. It essentially turned into genocide against the indigenous Mayan people of Guatemala. The international community has condemned the actions of the Guatemalan gov't and several military and gov't officials as genocide. The Guatemalan community in the U.S. carries the scars of the war. We have students in our schools whose parents experienced the war, or grandparents who came here and have never talked about the war with their descendants An important effort to heal the country's wounds has been Guatemala Nunca Mas, a project to collect people's memories and experiences of the war and record them for history. Central America: Guatemala History - ANS Jorge Ubico was a general that rose to power in 1931. He ran Guatemala as a "political state" limiting the freedoms of press and speech. He ruled until 1944 when protesters forced him to resign and flee the country in what would become Guatemala's most important revolution. This uprising resulted in the country's first truly democratic presidential election and creation of a democratic constitution. Juan Jose Arevalo, a university lecturer, emerged as the new president with an 85% vote in his favor. He introduced several much-needed reforms to the country's education and health care systems. In 1951 Jacob Arbenz came to power. He continued with Arevalo's style of imposing liberal reforms. including heavy land reform policy. Due to the expropriation of Guatemala's largest employer the United Fruit Company, America interfered. They arranged for the CIA to secretly train an army of Guatemalan exiles in Honduras. Under Carlos Castillo Armas, the small army invaded Guatemala through Honduras in 1954. The Guatemalan army did not put up much of a fight and Arbenz escaped to Mexico while Armas rose to power. Armas introduced a conservative regime which had long been ruled by a string of liberals. Throughout the 1960s and 70s Guatemala was subject to a series of brutal military regimes. In 1982 the four largest guerrilla groups united to reform the URNG (National Revolutionary Unit). But the civil war continued and it caused the U.S. to cut off all military assistance to the country. This brought some peace to the country with the election of civilian president Vinicio Cerezo. His term ended in violence, still springing up in several parts of the country. True peace did not come to Guatemala until Alvaro Arzu took power in 1996. Arzu negotiated with the four guerrilla groups that made up the URNG until a peace t Central America: Honduras - ANS Honduras was called the first "banana republic" so it has a long history of exploitation of local labor by foreign powers. In 1969 Honduras had a brief war with El Salvador; jobs and immigration were on the center of the rancor. Competition for jobs has caused bad blood between various Central American countries over the last two centuries. The Honduran military has carried out some death-squad-like raids against leftist groups, but the country never reached the point of all-out civil war like its neighbors El Salvador and Guatemala. Honduras was on the world stage in 2009 when the military briefly took control after the ousting of a president. Hurricane Mitch devastated Nicaragua in 1998, and thousands of people fled to the U.S. where the gov't granted them Temporary Protected Status. As of this writing in 2019 that status is under review and tied up in courts as the current administration wishes to revoke TPS for people from numerous countries. As in Costa Rica they use usted in all situations. As in Costa Rica, many people in Honduras use usted in all situations:""Usted" es el pronombre en segunda persona del singular que se usa en situaciones formales e informales en Honduras. Algunos usan el "usted" para dirigirse a todas las personas y tales hablantes se dirigen a los niños pequeños con "usted." También se suele usar entre extraños, autoridades, adultos mayores y otras formalidades. El "usted" es una forma importante de respeto para los hondureños sin importar la clase socio-económica. Su uso refleja el valor cultural que se le pone al "usted" como pronombre de más importancia de la oralidad hondureño. En situaciones donde hay personas de diferente estatus social, la persona menor se refiere a la mayor de usted mientras que el mayor vosea, tutea, o reciproca el ustedeo con la persona menor." Central America: Honduras History - ANS The early 20th century - Honduras had given vas swatches of its land away to major companies such as the United Fruit, in return for the labor that they provided and the infrastructure that they built. These fruit companies became so influential in every facet of Honduran life, that Honduras was called the first true "banana republic" The companies controlled presidents and politicians in Honduras. The country as an oligarchy. Workers' rights were minimal, the bottom line of the fruit companies was all-important. Once workers got the right to organize in the 1950s, a massive strike led to the ousting of democratically-elected president Villeda Morales, who was sympathetic to the workers, by the United Fruit-backed military who imposed a dictatorship on the country that lasted until the early 1980s. The military gov't of Honduras became a staunch ally of the United States in the fight against Communism in Latin America. In 1969 there was a bloody war with El Salvador called the Football War as it coincided with some World Cup qualifying between the two countries. The real reason was the fact that many Salvadorians were living in Honduras attracted by fruit company work. The military gov't wanted a scape goat so they blamed the immigrants. El Salvador responded and war commenced over four days in 1969. The war ended in a tie, it marked the turning point in the fortunes of the military gov't. Many people who once supported now turned. In 1981 civilian rule came back to Honduras. A new constitution was written and the fruit companies found themselves with no power at all. Honduras became the largest destination country for the Peace Corp. In the 80s the new gov't feared Honduras falling under communist control like its neighbor Nicaragua. The Honduran military started small-scale campaigns against left-win Central America: Nicaragua - ANS U.S. residents will associated Nicaragua with the Iran-Contra scandal that came to a head in 1987. The Nicaraguan Civil War was every bit as awful as those in El Salvador and Guatemala. The US occupied Nicaragua virtually nonstop between 1912 and 1933. "keeping the peace" between the warring conservatives and liberals and looking after their economic interests. Young guerrilla named Augusto Sandino led a war against the conservative gov't and occupying US Marines. The US also trained a local Nicaraguan force called the National Guard to look after American interests after it left Nicaragua. The National Guard was key in the rise of the Somozas. Anastasio Somoza was a National Guard man through and through, and a strong US loyalist. Franklin Roosevelt said of Somoza, "He might be a son of a bitch but he's OUR son of a bitch." Somoza became head of the National Guard and effectively ruled Nicaragua from 1927 onwards. By 1937 he took presidential power in a rigged