Samenvatting
Samenvatting Individu & Identiteit cursusboek Gray, P. & Bjorklund, D.F., (2018) Psychology. New York: Worth (8th ed.)
Goede en complete samenvatting van het cursusboek van Gray & Bjorklund. De inleiding voor psychologie.
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11- the development of body, thought, and languagephysical development
- what are the three phases of prenatal development and what are the major milestones of each phase?
prenatal development
zygotic, embryonic, and fetal phases
the effects of experience during the prenatal period
- when is the unborn child most susceptible to the effects of teratogens and why?
- how might prenatal experience ´prepare´ a fetus for postnatal life?
+ the prenatal period is divided into three phases: the zygotic (or germinal), the
embryonic, and the fetal.
+ development is most rapid in the head region, with the rest of the body catching up in
size later; this is termed cephalocaudal development
+ the effects of teratogens are apt to be most severe during the embryonic phase
because major organ systems are being formed at this time
physical development: puberty and adolescence
- to what extent do different parts of the body develop at different rates? why might this be so?
- how has the emergence of different aspects of puberty changed over historical time, and what is responsible for
these changes?
+ different body systems show different patterns of change from infancy to adulthood
+ major changes in physical development occur at puberty, with different aspects of
puberty for both boys and girls occurring at different times
+ average age of menarche decreased from the mid-1800s to about 1960 and has
remained stable since. breast growth and other aspects of pubertal development have
accelerated in recent decades, with obesity being a major cause.
how infants learn about the environment
the infants as explorer
infants look selectively at novel objects
- how does infants´behavior reveal that they are actively exploring their environments with their eyes and that they
remember what they have seen?
+ infants prefer novel stimuli, as demonstrated by the fact that they look longer at them.
this reliable tendency is used to study infant perception and memory.
infants seek to control their environments
- how does infants´behavior reveal that they are motivated to control their environments and are emotionally involved
in retaining control?
+ infants exhibit a strong drive to control their environment; they become upset when
control is taken away.
infants explore increasingly with hands and eyes together
+ by 5 or 6 months, infants examine objects with their hands and eyes, focusing on the
objects´unique properties
infants use social cues to guide their exploration
- how do infants, beginning before 12 months of age, use their observations of adults´behavior to guide their own
explorations?
+ from 6 to 12 months of age, infants use their observations of adults to mimic adults
´actions, look where adults are looking, use adults´emotional expressions to identify
danger or safety, and engage in shared attention.
infants´ knowledge of core physical principles
infants reveal core knowledge in selective-looking experiments
, - what is the violation-of-expectation method for studying infants´knowledge of physical principles? with this method,
what have researchers discovered about the knowledge of 2-to-4-month-olds?
+ infants as young as 2,5 to 4 months of age have knowledge of core physical principles,
revealed by the fact that they look longer at physically impossible events than at
physically possible events.
infants reveal less knowledge in search tasks than in selective-looking tasks
- how did jean piaget test infants´understanding of object permanence? what might explain the discrepancy between
piaget´s results and the results of selective-looking experiments?
+ search tasks that involve manual reaching appear to show later development of the
concept of object permanence, perhaps because reaching requires the infant to form a
plan to obtain the hidden object.
- what evidence suggests that self-produced locomotion promotes rapid development of infants´search abilities?
+ experience with self-produced locomotion promotes the ability to solve manual search
problems.
three theories of children's mental development
piaget's theory: role of the child's own actions in mental growth
schemes develop through assimilation and accommodation
- in piaget's theory, how do schemas develop through assimilation and accommodation?
+ piaget believed that cognitive development occurs through the child's actions on the
physical environment, which promote the development of schemes (mental blueprints
for actions)
+ piaget held that mental growth involves assimilation (fitting new experiences into
existing schemes) and accommodation (modifying those schemes to fit with new
experience)
children behave like little scientists
- what is piaget's ´little scientist´ view of children's behavior? how is it illustrated by the example of an infant playing
with containers and by an experiment with preschool children allowed to play with a two-level toy?
reversible actions (operations) promote development?
- in piaget's theory, what is the special value of operations?
+ operational schemes (schemes for reversible actions) are particularly important to
cognitive development, according to piaget.
four types of schemes, four stages of development
- in piaget's theory, what are the four stages and the ages roughly associated with each?
- what are two ways, other than reversibility of operations, that preoperational and concrete operational children
differ?
+ piaget described four successive stages of cognitive development (sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal-operational), each employing an
increasingly sophisticated type of scheme.
criticism of piaget's theory of stages
- why do many of today's developmental psychologists doubt piaget's theory of stages of mental development?
vygotsky's theory: role of the sociocultural environment in mental growth
- how does vygotsky's perspective on cognitive development differ from piaget's?
tools of intellectual adaptation
- what is vygotsky's concept of tools of intellectual adaptation? how can such tools influence the course of cognitive
, development?
- how might the number words of asian languages help children learn the base-10 number system more easily than
american and european children? what evidence suggests that they do learn the base-10 system earlier?
- how might being a ¨digital native¨ influence how children today learn to think?
+ vygotsky considered the child's interaction with the social and cultural environment to
be the key to cognitive development, leading to internalization of symbols, ideas, and
ways of thinking.
the role of collaboration and dialogue in mental development
- what is the ¨zone of proximal development¨, and how does it relate to children's cognitive development?
+ through dialogue and collaboration with more competent others, children acquire skills
socially before being able to perform them individually. such learning takes place within
the child's zone of proximal development.
the child as apprentice
- how does vygotsky´s ¨apprentice¨ view of the child contrast with piaget's ¨scientist¨ view?
an information-processing perspective on mental development
- what is the information-processing perspective on cognitive development, and how does it differ from piaget´s and
vygotsky´s perspectives?
development of long-term memory systems: episodic memory comes last
- through what developmental steps do young children develop the capacity to form episodic memories?
+ children exhibit implicit long-term memory from early infancy on, but we cannot assess
their explicit memory capacity until they have sufficient language skills.
+ episodic long-term memory apparently requires that the child encode personal
experiences verbally, which begins to happen with some regularity at about age 3.
the development of basic-level processes: executive function
- how do executive functions and speed of processing change with age during childhood and early adolescence?
how might working-memory capacity depend on speed of processing?
+ executive functions, including working memory, inhibition, and shifting, increase as the
child grows older, up to about age 15. a parallel increase in processing speed
accompanies this increase in capacity.
children's understanding of minds
even very young children explain behavior in mental terms
- what do children younger than 3 years old understand about other people's minds?
delay in understanding beliefs, especially false beliefs
- what evidence suggests that children younger than age 4 usually do not understand that people can hold false
beliefs? why might false beliefs be particularly difficult for young children to understand?
+ young children seem to automatically ascribe psychological characteristics to object
that move on their own
+ well before the age of 3, children use such mental constructs as perception, emotion,
and desire to explain people's behavior.
+ the understanding that beliefs can be false (i.e., not congruent with reality) takes longer
to develop, appearing at about age 4.
make-believe as a precursor to the belief-reality distinction
- what logic and evidence suggest that engagement in pretend play, especially in role-play with other children, may
help children acquire an understanding of false beliefs?
- how does research on people with autism support the premise that the understanding of minds and the
understanding of physical objects are fundamentally different abilities?
+ children everywhere engage in make-believe play; even toddlers distinguish between
reality and pretense.
+ make-believe play, especially role-play, may provide a foundation for the later
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