Week 1
Lecture
When Do the Middle Ages Begin?
● The Middle Ages traditionally start in 476 CE, marked by the deposition of the last Western
Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, by a barbarian chieftain.
● Iconic imagery: a burning city in the background, symbolizing the fall of the Roman Empire.
● Often described as the transition from an "age of light" (Rome) to the "Dark Ages," implying
a loss of order and civilization.
Four Academic Perspectives on the End of Antiquity
1. Edward Gibbon (18th Century)
● Author of the seminal work The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
● Golden Age: The Roman Empire’s peak occurred under Emperor Hadrian (117 CE).
● Afterward, gradual decline due to two key factors:
○ Barbarism: Barbarians settled within the empire, increasingly taking up critical
military roles (e.g., Stilicho, a Roman general of Vandal descent).
○ Christianity: Shift from the civic, identity-forming Roman religion to Christianity,
which focused on the Kingdom of God rather than the earthly realm.
● Gibbon emphasized the irreversible collapse of Roman institutions, viewing the fall as a
tragedy for humanity. His narrative highlighted loss, with beautiful prose that made readers
sympathize with Rome’s demise.
2. Henri Pirenne
● Author of a concise 200-page book that challenged Gibbon’s political focus.
● Pirenne studied economic and trade patterns rather than politics, arguing for continuity in the
5th century.
○ Example: Rulers like Theoderic the Great presented themselves as imperial figures,
while trade and Roman customs persisted.
○ In the East, the Byzantine Empire under Justinian remained a continuation of Rome.
● Key turning point: the rise of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries.
○ Islamic expansion disrupted the Mediterranean trade network, which had been central
to Roman economic life.
○ Pirenne argued that this disruption, rather than earlier barbarian invasions, marked the
true break with Antiquity.
● Sutton Hoo burial (England): Artifacts from the 7th century reflected continuity, with
treasures from across Europe (e.g., Byzantine silver, Frankish coins), supporting his thesis of
interconnected trade before the Islamic expansion.
3. Peter Brown
● Reframed the period 150–750 CE as a cultural revolution, rather than a time of decline.
● Key focus: intellectual, religious, and artistic shifts.
○ Rise of holy men and women (e.g., Anthony of Egypt, Simeon Stylite) who provided
guidance during crises, offering moral leadership.
, ○ Simeon Stylite’s life: living atop a pillar for 35 years, attracting followers, and
symbolizing spiritual dedication.
● Brown argued these figures acted as a social glue, stepping into leadership voids as formal
Roman institutions eroded.
● Conclusion: The end of Antiquity was less a fall and more a fascinating cultural
transformation, with changes in religion, art, and philosophy shaping the new world.
4. Modern Interdisciplinary Perspective
● Since the 1990s, a shift toward studying regional differences and localized responses to
Rome’s collapse.
● Key questions:
○ How did post-Roman societies interact with Roman heritage?
○ How were Roman structures (e.g., forums, laws, language, literature) reused and
transformed?
● Findings:
○ Roman heritage was never rejected outright but was selectively adapted. Examples
include turning the Colosseum into a church and continuing to use Latin for
administration.
○ Societies developed as a patchwork of cultures, each transforming Roman influence
on their own terms.
Key Events and Cultural Shifts
1. Conversion of Constantine (312 CE)
● Constantine, despite an inferior army, won a decisive battle after receiving a vision of a
Christian cross.
● Resulted in:
○ Christianity’s protection and the return of confiscated Christian property.
○ A massive building program of churches in Rome and Constantinople.
○ Christianity becoming the state religion two generations later.
2. Christian Leadership and Institutions
● Bishop (Episkopos):
○ Initially a spiritual overseer, later assumed civic roles, filling the gap left by
collapsing Roman offices.
○ Leaders of liturgy, defenders of citizens, and providers of poor relief.
● Priest (Presbyter): Focused on Mass and spiritual care.
● Deacon (Diakonos): Managed practical church matters, including charity and administration.
● Leaders were often educated, land-owning members of the Roman elite, ensuring continuity
with the Roman administrative system.
3. The Cult of Saints
● Saints were celebrated as exemplars of faith and intercessors for their communities.
● Early saints were often martyrs, such as:
○ Perpetua and Felicitas: North African Christians imprisoned and executed for their
faith, leaving behind reflections of their experience.
○ Gervasius and Protasius: Dreamt of by Bishop Ambrose, their rediscovered relics
became symbols of divine favor and local pride.
● Saints fostered devotion and connected people to the sacred.
,4. The Role of Monasteries
● Monasteries followed strict rules for prayer, work, and community living, becoming centers
of purity and influence.
● Over time, they gained wealth and power as landowners donated property in exchange for
prayers.
● Figures like St. Radegund exemplified monastic authority, balancing spiritual devotion with
leadership and healing.
5. The Pope
● The Bishop of Rome, known as the Pope, held unique moral and spiritual authority due to
Rome’s association with Peter and Paul.
● Acted as an advisor and mediator, consolidating the church’s leadership.
Legends and Transformations
● Seven Sleepers of Ephesus:
○ A story of seven Christians fleeing persecution under Emperor Decius in the 3rd
century, who fell asleep in a cave for 200 years.
○ Awoke to a Christianized society, symbolizing profound societal change over time.
Main Takeaways
● The transition from Antiquity to the Middle Ages was marked by gradual transformations in
culture, religion, and governance, rather than a sudden collapse.
● Different regions developed unique ways of integrating Roman heritage, creating a patchwork
of societies.
● The rise of Christianity fundamentally reshaped societal structures, filling leadership voids
and providing new cultural foundations.
● Far from being a time of decline, this period saw the emergence of new ideas, art forms, and
institutions that would shape the medieval world.
The Roman World Transformed- Barbara Rosenwein
The Transformation of the Roman Empire
1. Geography and Governance:
○ At its height (3rd century), the Roman Empire spanned the Mediterranean, including
Spain, England, France, the Balkans, Turkey, Syria, Egypt, and North Africa.
○ Provinces (areas outside Italy) were initially subjugated militarily but became
integrated, with citizenship extended to all free inhabitants in 212 CE.
2. Historiographical Evolution:
○ Edward Gibbon’s 18th-century view of Rome’s “decline and fall” dominated until the
1960s.
○ Peter Brown reframed the period (150–750) as "Late Antiquity," emphasizing cultural
and religious dynamism rather than solely decline.
○ Modern historians take nuanced views, balancing resilience (Christianization, cultural
shifts) with decline (economic hardship, climate change, pandemics).
, Key Developments (c.250–500 CE)
1. The Provincialization of Power:
○ Third-Century Crisis: External threats (Persians in the east, "barbarians" in the north)
and internal struggles (plague, political instability) highlighted the empire's
challenges.
○ Rome’s role diminished as power shifted to provincial centers (Milan, Trier,
Constantinople).
○ Diocletian’s Tetrarchy (284–305) divided the empire into four administrative regions,
paving the way for the East-West division.
○ Military expansion and economic pressures (currency debasement, requisitioning)
transformed the empire, empowering provincial leaders over traditional Roman elites.
2. Rise of Christianity:
○ Christianity, originating in Palestine, appealed to marginalized groups with its
promise of salvation and inclusion.
○ Sporadic persecution strengthened Christian communities, which developed
organized clergy led by bishops.
○ Constantine’s Edict of Milan (313) legalized Christianity, followed by state support
(church building, privileges for priests).
○ The Council of Nicaea (325) established key doctrines, while Theodosius I (late 4th
century) declared Nicene Christianity the state religion, accelerating the decline of
paganism.
○ Internal divisions (e.g., Arianism, Donatism) shaped theological debates, with figures
like Augustine (City of God) contributing to the intellectual foundation of Christian
thought.
3. Cultural and Artistic Shifts:
○ Classical Roman art (naturalistic and dynamic) gave way to symbolic and hierarchical
styles, reflecting provincial influences and Christian ideals.
○ Examples include the rigid, unified depiction of the Tetrarchs and early Christian
frescoes emphasizing spiritual transcendence.
Barbarian Influx and the Western Collapse
1. Barbarian Integration:
○ Barbarians like the Visigoths, Vandals, and Franks initially cooperated with Rome,
often serving as federates (allied forces with land grants).
○ Mistreatment and mismanagement led to conflicts, including the Battle of Adrianople
(378), where the Visigoths decisively defeated Roman forces, weakening the empire.
2. Fall of the Western Empire:
○ Key events: Visigothic sack of Rome (410), Odoacer’s deposition of the last Western
emperor (476), and Theodoric’s Ostrogothic kingdom in Italy (493).
○ By 500 CE, the Western Empire had fragmented into barbarian kingdoms (Visigoths
in Spain, Franks in Gaul, Vandals in North Africa), blending Roman and barbarian
traditions.
The New Order (c.500–750 CE)
1. Western Europe:
○ Urban decline and ruralization characterized the West, with wealthy landowners
dominating rural areas and local economies replacing long-distance trade.
