322 Final Exam Questions and Answers
Statistics - ANS-The most important goal of statistics is to infer an unknown quantity
(e.g., height of a species of plant) of an entire population of plants based on sample
data (a subset of observations from the population)
Population - ANS-Entire collection of individual units that share a property or sets
of properties from which you want to generalize knowledge about unknown
quantities (observations) based on a sub-set of individual units (sample).
Parameter - ANS-a quantity describing a statistical population
estimate or statistic - ANS-a related quantity calculated from a sample.
Variable - ANS-any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or
counted. Height, weight, age, gender, business income and expenses, country of birth,
capital expenditure, class grades and eye color are examples of variables.
Observation units or Statistical units - ANS-the entity on which information is logged
(e.g., one individual lake trout).
Observation - ANS-contains all the values for the variables of interest such as the fork
length and individual weight of an individual brook trout
Categorical variables (qualitative variables) - ANS-describe membership in a category
or group; characteristics of observations that do not have magnitude on a numerical
scale
nominal or ordinal
Nominal - ANS-Survival (alive or dead)
Method of disease transmission (e.g., water, air, animal vector)
Eye colours (amber, blue, brown, gray, green, hazel, or red),
Breed of a dog (e.g., collie, shepherd, terrier)
Ordinal - ANS-Life stage (e.g., egg, larva, juvenile, adult)
Snake bite severity score (e.g., minimal, moderate, severe),
Size class (e.g., small, medium, large).
,Numerical Variables (Quantitative) - ANS-characteristics of observations have
magnitude on a numerical scale.
continuous or discrete
Continuous - ANS-(can take any real-number value)
Core body temperature (e.g., degrees Celcius, oC)
Territory size of a bird (e.g., hectares)
Size of fish (e.g., cm),
Discrete - ANS-(only take indivisible units)
Age at death (e.g., years)
Number of amino acids in a protein,
Number of eggs in a bird nest.
statistical variables - ANS-variables are not based on their measuring units but rather
their types Arm length and leg length can be both measured in centimeters but they are
TWO different variables.
Random Sampling - ANS-two criteria:
Every observational unit in the population have an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
The selection of observational units in the population must be independent.
EQUAL CHANCE AND INDEPENDENT
Random sampling minimizes bias of estimates in relation to a parameter
Experimental Study - ANS-Researcher randomly assigns observational units (fish
individuals) to different groups (often called treatments; e.g., high/low protein diet)
Observation Study - ANS-Researcher has no control over which observational units fall
into which groups.
Bar graph - ANS-Vertical or horizontal columns (bars) representing the distribution of a
numerical variable against one or more categorical variables
Explainatory variable - ANS-predicts or affects the other variable, called the response
variable.
, When conducting an experiment, the treatment variable (the one manipulated by the
researcher) is the explanatory variable
response variable - ANS-the explanatory variable, predicts or affects the other variable,
called the response variable.
the measured effect of the treatment is the response variable.
How many intervals (classes of abundance) should be used? - ANS-The Sturges'
rule: n.intervals=1+ln(n)/ln(2)
HISTOGRAM - ANS-are important because they describe shape of numerical variables
the mode - ANS-is the interval corresponding to the highest peak in the frequency
distribution. A distribution is said bimodal when it has two dominant peaks
the skew - ANS-refers to asymmetry in the shape of a frequency distribution for a
numerical variable. (can be skewed left or right)
frequency distribution - ANS-is a representation either in a graphical or tabular format,
that displays the number of observations within a given internal of a quantitative
variable. (continuous or discrete)
intervals must be - ANS-mutually exclusive (each observation only belongs to one
interval) and exhaustive (all observations must be included), and the interval size
depends on the data being analyzed and the goals of the analys
how to calculate intervals and speed intervals with 8 observations - ANS-Intervals:
surges rule = 1+In(n)/ln(2)
Here = 1 + ln(8)/ln(2) = 4 classes
Speed intervals = (max(value)-min(value))/number of classes
= (2-9) / 4 = 0.275
what does this mean (a,b] and [a,b) - ANS-(a,b] left open and right closed (starts from
the right)
[a,b) right open and left closed (starts from the left)
Statistics - ANS-The most important goal of statistics is to infer an unknown quantity
(e.g., height of a species of plant) of an entire population of plants based on sample
data (a subset of observations from the population)
Population - ANS-Entire collection of individual units that share a property or sets
of properties from which you want to generalize knowledge about unknown
quantities (observations) based on a sub-set of individual units (sample).
Parameter - ANS-a quantity describing a statistical population
estimate or statistic - ANS-a related quantity calculated from a sample.
Variable - ANS-any characteristic, number, or quantity that can be measured or
counted. Height, weight, age, gender, business income and expenses, country of birth,
capital expenditure, class grades and eye color are examples of variables.
Observation units or Statistical units - ANS-the entity on which information is logged
(e.g., one individual lake trout).
Observation - ANS-contains all the values for the variables of interest such as the fork
length and individual weight of an individual brook trout
Categorical variables (qualitative variables) - ANS-describe membership in a category
or group; characteristics of observations that do not have magnitude on a numerical
scale
nominal or ordinal
Nominal - ANS-Survival (alive or dead)
Method of disease transmission (e.g., water, air, animal vector)
Eye colours (amber, blue, brown, gray, green, hazel, or red),
Breed of a dog (e.g., collie, shepherd, terrier)
Ordinal - ANS-Life stage (e.g., egg, larva, juvenile, adult)
Snake bite severity score (e.g., minimal, moderate, severe),
Size class (e.g., small, medium, large).
,Numerical Variables (Quantitative) - ANS-characteristics of observations have
magnitude on a numerical scale.
continuous or discrete
Continuous - ANS-(can take any real-number value)
Core body temperature (e.g., degrees Celcius, oC)
Territory size of a bird (e.g., hectares)
Size of fish (e.g., cm),
Discrete - ANS-(only take indivisible units)
Age at death (e.g., years)
Number of amino acids in a protein,
Number of eggs in a bird nest.
statistical variables - ANS-variables are not based on their measuring units but rather
their types Arm length and leg length can be both measured in centimeters but they are
TWO different variables.
Random Sampling - ANS-two criteria:
Every observational unit in the population have an equal chance of being included in the
sample.
The selection of observational units in the population must be independent.
EQUAL CHANCE AND INDEPENDENT
Random sampling minimizes bias of estimates in relation to a parameter
Experimental Study - ANS-Researcher randomly assigns observational units (fish
individuals) to different groups (often called treatments; e.g., high/low protein diet)
Observation Study - ANS-Researcher has no control over which observational units fall
into which groups.
Bar graph - ANS-Vertical or horizontal columns (bars) representing the distribution of a
numerical variable against one or more categorical variables
Explainatory variable - ANS-predicts or affects the other variable, called the response
variable.
, When conducting an experiment, the treatment variable (the one manipulated by the
researcher) is the explanatory variable
response variable - ANS-the explanatory variable, predicts or affects the other variable,
called the response variable.
the measured effect of the treatment is the response variable.
How many intervals (classes of abundance) should be used? - ANS-The Sturges'
rule: n.intervals=1+ln(n)/ln(2)
HISTOGRAM - ANS-are important because they describe shape of numerical variables
the mode - ANS-is the interval corresponding to the highest peak in the frequency
distribution. A distribution is said bimodal when it has two dominant peaks
the skew - ANS-refers to asymmetry in the shape of a frequency distribution for a
numerical variable. (can be skewed left or right)
frequency distribution - ANS-is a representation either in a graphical or tabular format,
that displays the number of observations within a given internal of a quantitative
variable. (continuous or discrete)
intervals must be - ANS-mutually exclusive (each observation only belongs to one
interval) and exhaustive (all observations must be included), and the interval size
depends on the data being analyzed and the goals of the analys
how to calculate intervals and speed intervals with 8 observations - ANS-Intervals:
surges rule = 1+In(n)/ln(2)
Here = 1 + ln(8)/ln(2) = 4 classes
Speed intervals = (max(value)-min(value))/number of classes
= (2-9) / 4 = 0.275
what does this mean (a,b] and [a,b) - ANS-(a,b] left open and right closed (starts from
the right)
[a,b) right open and left closed (starts from the left)
