Samenvatting alle literatuur Youth & Sexuality
Lecture 1a
No literature
Lecture 1b
Cacciatore, R., Korteniemi-Poikela, E., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2019). The steps of
sexuality—A developmental, emotion-focused, child-centered model of sexual
development and sexuality education from birth to adulthood. International Journal of
Sexual Health, 31(3), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2019.1645783
Abstract
• Objective: To review research on emotional, cognitive, and behavioral levels of
sexual development in children and adolescents, and, based on that, to propose a
model of sexual development from infancy to early adulthood, the Steps of Sexuality.
• Methods: Literature review.
• Results: We present a model of sexual development from infancy to early adulthood,
the Steps of Sexuality.
• Conclusion: We posit that to promote “a state of physical, emotional, mental and
social well-being in relation to sexuality,” sexuality education needs to focus on
emotional needs and positive dimensions/aspects of sexuality.
Introduction
Sexual experiences gained too early for the developmental phase appear throughout
developmental years associated with adverse outcomes, but toward the end of adolescent
development readiness and desire for genitally intimate sexuality are established. It is
plausible to assume that, as in all facets of development, there are age-specific steps of
sexual development that spring from and exemplify a child’s or an adolescent’s
endogenous needs, readiness, and intentions.
Developmental theories and sexuality across the developmental years
Classical psychoanalytical theory recognized the sexuality of children from infancy,
dividing sexuality in infants and toddlers to oral, anal, phallic, and early genital phases,
where pleasure is related primarily to (breast)feeding, control of defecating and urinating and
genital sensations.
Attachment theories suggest that children come into the world with an innate readiness to
form attachments with others, and that this will help them to survive. The primary attachment
figure provides the infant with a secure base from which to explore the world. Importantly,
this attachment relationship serves as a prototype for all future social relationships. This is
relevant for sexual development as primary attachment style influences emotional reactions
related to social relationships in young adulthood, with secure attachment style connected to
more positive affect.
Erikson described the development in terms of a sequence of developmental stages from
infancy to adulthood. Each stage brings about its characteristic psychosocial crisis that
needs to be resolved positively so that development can proceed. The first stages are called,
each according to its most salient developmental task, trust vs. mistrust (0–18 months),
autonomy vs. shame (18–36 months), and initiative vs. guilt (3–5 years). Stages completed
engender a sense of trust that will carry over to relationships other than primary caregiving, a
growing sense of independence and autonomy, and to initiative that allows exploring
interpersonal skills. Trust, autonomy and initiative are all directly relevant for emotionally
meaningful relationships including those of a romantic and erotic nature. Between 5 and 12
years the developmental tasks are not directly related to sexuality. In adolescence (12–18
years), the development focuses on identity vs. role confusion. The adolescent actively
1
, explores identity options, where sexuality and gender identity are central. Intimacy, the
primary aspect of development in adulthood, is made possible by successful resolution of the
identity crisis.
Developmental tasks theories state that favorable completion of developmental tasks of a
given stage is likewise a prerequisite for success in subsequent stages. These tasks arise
from interactions among physical development, personal attributes and societal expectations
‘’Nature” and “nurture” behind gendered behaviors and gender identity
The study of sexual development may in broad terms consist of gender identity and
gendered behaviors. Gender identity and gendered behaviors could both be affected by
nature (biological factors, such as genes or hormones) as well as by cognitive factors and
social learning (such as cognitive schemas). Moreover, there is continuous interaction
between genes and experiences.
Empirical findings on sexuality in childhood
Sexuality of children: behavioral level
Behaviors showing interest in one’s own body and the bodies of others and in gender
roles and showing affect are common. Sexually explicit behaviors, such as liking to
dress, walk, act, and gesture in sexual ways, talking with adults about sexual matters, and
playing sex with toys are much less common; and intrusively sexual behaviors are rare in
small children. Interestingly, smaller children display more sexual behaviors than older
ones, with peak frequency at age 5.
Studies based on interviews and surveys among prepubertal children themselves and
retrospective data collected from older subjects have suggested that 10- to 12-year-olds
commonly think, talk, and dream about sex; watch sexually explicit material; and masturbate
to orgasm. Homophobic attitudes and believing that masturbation and viewing pornography
are harmful decreased with age. Exploring one’s own sexuality by for example
masturbation in prepubertal period is necessary for the development of healthy sexual
desire and active sexual behavior in adulthood.
Cognitive aspects of sexual development in children
Learning to appreciate social norms represents cognitive aspects of sexual development.
The cognitive aspect of sexuality also includes knowledge. With increasing age, knowledge
about all these topics increased, but throughout the preschool years children knew much
less about adult sexuality, abuse prevention and pregnancy than about body parts and
gender differences. Particularly, children demonstrated little understanding of adult sexuality.
Cognitive understanding of social norms results in adult caregivers usually being unaware of
the sexual behaviors of prepubertal children.
Love
Love is a central emotion in human sexuality. The meaning and expression of sexuality by
expressing feelings of love and the ability to express and communicate one’s own emotions,
wishes, and needs are essential skills in later sexuality.
Interview studies among children themselves suggest that many children fall in love for the
first time during middle childhood (ages 6–9) or even earlier. Children make a distinction
between loving mother and father and loving a special friend, a same-aged peer, and they
understand that certain behaviors such as kissing are expressions of the special affect felt
for the beloved person. Love and kisses are also directed at same-gender children.
Sociocultural studies have shown that love and romance are a central theme in play and an
important topic of discussion in middle childhood and preadolescence, particularly among
girls. Being in love is experienced together with friends but not confessed to the target of the
emotion
2
Lecture 1a
No literature
Lecture 1b
Cacciatore, R., Korteniemi-Poikela, E., & Kaltiala-Heino, R. (2019). The steps of
sexuality—A developmental, emotion-focused, child-centered model of sexual
development and sexuality education from birth to adulthood. International Journal of
Sexual Health, 31(3), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317611.2019.1645783
Abstract
• Objective: To review research on emotional, cognitive, and behavioral levels of
sexual development in children and adolescents, and, based on that, to propose a
model of sexual development from infancy to early adulthood, the Steps of Sexuality.
• Methods: Literature review.
• Results: We present a model of sexual development from infancy to early adulthood,
the Steps of Sexuality.
• Conclusion: We posit that to promote “a state of physical, emotional, mental and
social well-being in relation to sexuality,” sexuality education needs to focus on
emotional needs and positive dimensions/aspects of sexuality.
Introduction
Sexual experiences gained too early for the developmental phase appear throughout
developmental years associated with adverse outcomes, but toward the end of adolescent
development readiness and desire for genitally intimate sexuality are established. It is
plausible to assume that, as in all facets of development, there are age-specific steps of
sexual development that spring from and exemplify a child’s or an adolescent’s
endogenous needs, readiness, and intentions.
Developmental theories and sexuality across the developmental years
Classical psychoanalytical theory recognized the sexuality of children from infancy,
dividing sexuality in infants and toddlers to oral, anal, phallic, and early genital phases,
where pleasure is related primarily to (breast)feeding, control of defecating and urinating and
genital sensations.
Attachment theories suggest that children come into the world with an innate readiness to
form attachments with others, and that this will help them to survive. The primary attachment
figure provides the infant with a secure base from which to explore the world. Importantly,
this attachment relationship serves as a prototype for all future social relationships. This is
relevant for sexual development as primary attachment style influences emotional reactions
related to social relationships in young adulthood, with secure attachment style connected to
more positive affect.
Erikson described the development in terms of a sequence of developmental stages from
infancy to adulthood. Each stage brings about its characteristic psychosocial crisis that
needs to be resolved positively so that development can proceed. The first stages are called,
each according to its most salient developmental task, trust vs. mistrust (0–18 months),
autonomy vs. shame (18–36 months), and initiative vs. guilt (3–5 years). Stages completed
engender a sense of trust that will carry over to relationships other than primary caregiving, a
growing sense of independence and autonomy, and to initiative that allows exploring
interpersonal skills. Trust, autonomy and initiative are all directly relevant for emotionally
meaningful relationships including those of a romantic and erotic nature. Between 5 and 12
years the developmental tasks are not directly related to sexuality. In adolescence (12–18
years), the development focuses on identity vs. role confusion. The adolescent actively
1
, explores identity options, where sexuality and gender identity are central. Intimacy, the
primary aspect of development in adulthood, is made possible by successful resolution of the
identity crisis.
Developmental tasks theories state that favorable completion of developmental tasks of a
given stage is likewise a prerequisite for success in subsequent stages. These tasks arise
from interactions among physical development, personal attributes and societal expectations
‘’Nature” and “nurture” behind gendered behaviors and gender identity
The study of sexual development may in broad terms consist of gender identity and
gendered behaviors. Gender identity and gendered behaviors could both be affected by
nature (biological factors, such as genes or hormones) as well as by cognitive factors and
social learning (such as cognitive schemas). Moreover, there is continuous interaction
between genes and experiences.
Empirical findings on sexuality in childhood
Sexuality of children: behavioral level
Behaviors showing interest in one’s own body and the bodies of others and in gender
roles and showing affect are common. Sexually explicit behaviors, such as liking to
dress, walk, act, and gesture in sexual ways, talking with adults about sexual matters, and
playing sex with toys are much less common; and intrusively sexual behaviors are rare in
small children. Interestingly, smaller children display more sexual behaviors than older
ones, with peak frequency at age 5.
Studies based on interviews and surveys among prepubertal children themselves and
retrospective data collected from older subjects have suggested that 10- to 12-year-olds
commonly think, talk, and dream about sex; watch sexually explicit material; and masturbate
to orgasm. Homophobic attitudes and believing that masturbation and viewing pornography
are harmful decreased with age. Exploring one’s own sexuality by for example
masturbation in prepubertal period is necessary for the development of healthy sexual
desire and active sexual behavior in adulthood.
Cognitive aspects of sexual development in children
Learning to appreciate social norms represents cognitive aspects of sexual development.
The cognitive aspect of sexuality also includes knowledge. With increasing age, knowledge
about all these topics increased, but throughout the preschool years children knew much
less about adult sexuality, abuse prevention and pregnancy than about body parts and
gender differences. Particularly, children demonstrated little understanding of adult sexuality.
Cognitive understanding of social norms results in adult caregivers usually being unaware of
the sexual behaviors of prepubertal children.
Love
Love is a central emotion in human sexuality. The meaning and expression of sexuality by
expressing feelings of love and the ability to express and communicate one’s own emotions,
wishes, and needs are essential skills in later sexuality.
Interview studies among children themselves suggest that many children fall in love for the
first time during middle childhood (ages 6–9) or even earlier. Children make a distinction
between loving mother and father and loving a special friend, a same-aged peer, and they
understand that certain behaviors such as kissing are expressions of the special affect felt
for the beloved person. Love and kisses are also directed at same-gender children.
Sociocultural studies have shown that love and romance are a central theme in play and an
important topic of discussion in middle childhood and preadolescence, particularly among
girls. Being in love is experienced together with friends but not confessed to the target of the
emotion
2
