ALL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES (CH 1-9, 12, 14, 15), All You need for easy revision. Rated A

ALL PSYCHOLOGY NOTES (CH 1-9, 12, 14, 15), All You need for easy revision. Rated A CHAPTER GUIDE: CH 1: 77 terms - CARDS 3-79 CH 2: 78 terms - CARDS 80-158 CH 3: 92 terms - CARDS 159-251 CH 4: 105 terms - CARDS 252-357 CH 5: 103 terms - CARDS 358-461 CH 6: 114 terms - CARDS 462-576 CH 7: 102 terms - CARDS 577-679 CH 8: 110 terms - CARDS 680-790 CH 9: 70 terms - CARDS 791-861 CH 12: 102 terms - CARDS 862-964 CH 14: 94 terms - CARDS 965-1059 CH 15: 25 terms - CARDS - Chapter 1: Science of Psychology Chapter 2: Biological Perspective Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception Chapter 4: Consciousness Chapter 5: Learning Chapter 6: Memory Chapter 7: Cognition Chapter 8: Development Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion Chapter 12: Social Psychology Chapter 14: Psychological Disorders Chapter 15: Psychological Therapies CHAPTER 1: Science of Psychology - CARDS 2-79 What is Psychology? - The scientific study of behavior and mental processes. -- behavior: any action -- metal processes: perceptions, thoughts, feelings (latent constructs) -- scientific Goals of Psychology - 1. Describe (what is happening?) 2. Explain (why is it happening?) 3. Predict (when will i happen again?) 4. Control (how can it be changed?) Wilheim Wundt - "Father of Psychology" - Some work involved *objective introspection* • 1. First attempt to bring objectivity/measurement in psychology • 2. Founded the 1st experimental psychology laboratory. objective introspection - Wundt -- process of objectively examining and measuring one's own thoughts and mental activities EX: place object, like rock, in student's hand and have student explain everything he was feeling from holding the rock -- all sensations by the rock Edward Titchener - • Student of Wundt, translated many of Wundt's works into English • *Structuralism* - Study consciousness by trying to understand its smallest, most basic elements • Introspection of thoughts as well as physical objects Structuralism - Titchener -- expanded on Wundt's original ideas -- focus of the study was the structure of the mind William James - • Functionalism: Fuctionalism - William James -- Study the function of consciousness‐how the mind allows people to work, play, adapt to new circumstances Max Wertheimer - Gestalt Psychology, or how we experience the world - "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts." Gestalt Psychology - Wertheimer -- How we experience the world as whole Sigmund Freud - Worked with patients whose complaints had no identifiable physical cause • Focused on the role of the unconscious - Where unwanted urges and desires are pushed towards • *Psychoanalysis*: therapy based on Freud's ideas - Focus on early childhood development; psychosexual stages - Dream interpretation: "The interpretation of dreams is the royal road to a knowledge of the unconscious activities of the mind." psychoanalysis - Freud -- theory based on Freud's ideas that there is an unconscious (unaware) mind into which we push/repress all threatening urges or desires, which cause nervous disorders [focuses on early childhood experiences] John Watson - *Behaviorism* or study of the observable behavior -- performed the "Little Albert" study trying to create a phobia using the classic conditioning, a technique discovered by Pavlov Behaviorism - Watson -- focused on the study of observable behavior Pavlov - Interested in reflexes • Discovered that reflexes could be learned/conditioned aka *conditioning* EX: observing dogs & metronome - At first, Pavlov turned metronome on, feed dogs, caused saliva (natural response) - Then, metronome caused saliva before being feed, a learned reflexive response (aka conditioning) conditioning - Pavlov -- the idea that reflexive responses can be learned or "conditioned" John Watson: Little Albert study - Freud: phobias are the result of unconscious conflicts -- Watson believed he could create a phobia using the conditioning technique discovered by Pavlov -- Took baby, "Little Albert," and taught him to fear a rat by making loud, scary noises every time a rat appeared until just seeing the rat made the baby cry/fearful 7 Modern Perspectives of Pyschology - • Psychodynamic • Behavioral • Humanistic • Cognitive • Sociocultural • Bio-psychological Perspective • Evolutionary Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective - Modern version of psychoanalysis - more focused on the development of a sense of self and the discovery of other motivations behind a person's behavior. - Psychodynamic psychotherapy - Attachment theory: type of bond formed between caregiver and an infant Behavioral Perspective - -- After a scandal, Watson left his academic job and went into advertising. -- BF Skinner, a famous behaviorist who continued and expanded upon his work in classical conditioning • How to manipulate voluntary behavior by changing the consequences of behavior - Operant conditioning Operant conditioning - B.F. Skinner -- developed theory to explain how voluntary behavior is learned -- behavioral responses followed by pleasurable consequences are strengthened or reinforced EX: crying infant gets mother's attention, infant with cry for attention again in the future Humanistic Perspective - Emphasis in conscious and immediate experiences and the empowerment of the individual to become the best he/she can be, achieve one's full potential (self‐actualization) - Humanists held the view that people have self-actualization & free will: the freedom to choose/shape their own destiny. - Client‐centered therapy Cognitive Perspective - Grew in part out of gestalt psychology • How people think, remember, and store information - Language, problem solving, intelligence, decision making... • Cognitive neuroscience: brain and cognitive processing Sociocultural Perspective - Combines social and cultural psychology - Social psychology: study of groups, relationships, social influences on behavior - Cultural psychology: study of cultural values and norms, or standards of behavior -- Cross‐cultural studies: contrast/comparisons of a behavior/ issue studied in at least two or more cultures Biopsychological Perspective - Mental processes can be explained by the events in the body including interaction with biological factors like genes, or hormones. (or heredity, brain chemicals, etc) -- research includes sleep, emotions, aggression, sexual behavior, learning, and memory, plus disorders Evolutionary Perspective - Grew in part out of functionalism • Argues that human behavior is a result of psychological adaptations that help people successfully function and survive -- focuses on the biological gases for universal mental characteristics that all humans share Types of Psychological Professionals - Psychologists Therapy Psychiatrists Psychologists - • Doctoral degree & specialized training in one or more subfield of psychology • Clinical, counseling, developmental, cognitive, social, biological, personality • Some psychologists do basic research; others do applied research; some do both. Basic vs Applied research - • Basic research -- research for the sake of gaining scientific knowledge EX: How do patients with Alzheimer's disease experience emotion? • Applied research -- research aimed at answering real-world, practical problems EX: How can we use the intact emotional responses of some Alzheimer's patients to improve their quality of life? Therapy - • Some psychologists (e.g., school, counseling, clinical) are trained in psychological interventions/therapy. • Some other professions also do psychotherapy, sometimes from specific perspectives: EX: Social workers, marriage and family therapists • Some of these professions require a master's degree (vs. a doctoral degree). • With a few exceptions, psychologists are not allowed to prescribe medication ("pharmacotherapy"). Psychiatrists - • Medical degree/medical specialty •Psychiatrists go to medical school and then specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders • Often uses medication as treatment -- Psychiatric Social Worker: trained in the area of social work and usually possesses a master's degree in that discipline (focus more on environmental conditions that have impacted mental disorders, like poverty, overcrowding, stress, and drug abuse) Confirmation Bias - Tendency to notice, seek out, and interpret information in a way consistent with your own prior beliefs Scientific Method - - a system for reducing bias and error in the measurement of data - used in psychology to accomplish the goals of description, explanation, prediction, and control 1. Perceiving a Question 2. Forming a Hypothesis 3. Testing the Hypothesis 4. Drawing Conclusion 5. Reporting Results Research Methods of Psychology - descriptive methods (4) correlations experiments Descriptive Methods - naturalistic observation laboratory observation case study surveys Naturalistic Observation (Descriptive Method) Advantage: Limitations & Ways to Minimize: - • Watching animals or humans behave in their normal environment Advantage: realistic picture of behavior Limitations and Ways of Minimizing: ◦ Observer effect [behave different knowing being observed] -- Participant observation (observer part of the observed group, reduces observer effect) ◦ Observer bias [see what expected to see] -- Blind observers (don't know research question, reduces observer bias) ◦ Each naturalistic setting is unique, and observations may not hold. Observer effect - tendency of people or animals to behave differently from normal when they know they are being observed. Participant observation - a naturalistic observation in which the observer becomes a participant in the group being observed (to reduce observer effect) Observer bias - tendency of observers to see what they expect to see Blind observers - people who do not know what the research question is (to reduce observer bias) Laboratory Observation (Descriptive Method) Advantages: Limitations: - •Watching animals or humans behave in a laboratory setting Advantages: ◦ Control over environment ◦ Allows use of specialized equipment Limitations: ◦ Artificial situation that may result in artificial behavior ◦ Can be difficult to generalize findings to "real world" situations Case Study (Descriptive Method) Advantage: Limitation: - • Study of one individual in great detail Advantage: ◦ Tremendous amount of detail ◦ Rich source for hypothesis generation Limitation: ◦ Findings may not generalize to others Survey (Descriptive Method) - -- A technique for ascertaining the self‐reported attitudes, opinions or behaviors of people. Advantages: • Data from large numbers of people • Study covert behaviors (get private information) Limitations: • People are not always accurate •Small variations in wording used or order of questions can affect outcomes •Researchers have to ensure representative sample if interested in generalizing findings to a certain population, aka *sampling* Explain significant of the Phineas Gage story - Famous *case study* of Phineas Gage, who accidentally, had a large metal rod driven through his head and suffered a major personality change as a result -- Example of case study being the best research method in some situations by being the only way to get certain kinds of information Sampling - • Population: entire group of people or animals the researchers is interested in • Representative sample: randomly selected sample of subjects for a larger population EX: Wanting to survey US college freshmen about politics, you select a randomly representative sample by selecting a certain # of college freshmen from many different colleges in US Correlation - A measure of the relationship between two variables (examining relationships) Variable - anything that can change or vary What does the correlation coefficient represent? - • Measures of two variables go into a mathematical formula and produce a correlation coefficient (r), which represents two things: • the direction of the relationship (sign) • the strength of the relationship (number) • Range: ‐1 to +1 -- The closer to 1 OR ‐1 the stronger the relationship. -- The closer to 0 the weaker the relationship • Knowing the value of one variable allows researchers to predict the value of the other variable. Correlation: Direction - • Positive correlation: variables are related in the same direction -- As one increases, the other increases; as one decreases, the other decreases. • Negative correlation: variables are related in opposite direction -- As one increases, the other decreases. Correlation: Size - • A clustered, close picture is correlations of -.04 showing a weak correlation • A scattered cluster with a best fit line sloping downward is correlation of -.37 showing a negative correlation • A scattered cluster with best fit line sloping upward is a correlation of .61 showing a positive correlation Correlation and Causation - • Correlation does not prove causation! EX: ice cream sales and drowning -- Since ice cream sales go up and drowning also go up, they have a positive correlation BUT this doesn't prove ice cream is causing the drownings. -- If variables are causally related, a correlation won't tell you which variable is the cause and which is the effect. EX: self‐esteem and school performance Experiments - A researcher manipulates one variable (IV) and measures the effect of the manipulation on another (DV). Independent Variable - the variable in an experiment that is manipulated by experimenter Dependent Variable - the variable in an experiment that represents the measurable response or behavior of the subjects in the experiment Operational Definition - • Definition of a variable of interest that allows it to be directly measured • Specifically naming the operations (steps/procedures) that the experimenter must use to control or measure the variables in the experiment EX: Intelligence, Depression, Aggression EX: measuring aggressive behavior in children after violent cartoons, would do by making a checklist such as hitting, pushing, etc. Experimental Group - subjects in an experiment who are subjected to the IV Control Group - Subjects in an experiment who are not subjected to the IV and who may receive a placebo treatment (controls for some confounding variables) Random Assignment - randomly assigning participants to experimental or control group -- minimizes pre‐existing differences between the two groups -- gives each study participant an equal chance of being in the treatment or the control group Potential issues with Experiments - confounds demand characteristics placebo effect experimenter effect Confounds (Way to Minimize) - (aka third variables) are variables that the researcher failed to control, or eliminate, damaging the internal validity of an experiment. -- extraneous variable that affects the variables you are interested in studying (EX: already aggressive background kids in the violent TV experiment) • Experimental and control groups • Random assignment Demand Characteristics (Way to Minimize) - participants change their behavior based on what they perceive the experiment to be about • Deception Placebo Effect (Way to Minimize) - expectations of participants can influence their behavior • Experimental and control groups • Single blind study Experimenter Effect (Way to Minimize) - experimenter's expectations can unintentionally influence the results of a study • Double blind study Single Blind Study vs Double Blind Study - Single Blind Study -- participants are blind to the treatment they receive Double Blind Study -- both participants and person measuring the dependent variable are blind to who got what (blind of whose experimental or control) Quasi-Experiment Designs - Not considered true experiments because of the inability to randomly assign participants to the experimental and control groups EX: Effect of alcohol exposure in utero on children's school performance; Schizophrenia and cognitive performance Important Note: A single study is limited in the information it provides. It is needed for what 2 studies: - • Need for replication studies • Need for studies testing alternate hypotheses Meta‐analysis - special type of quantitative review of a research literature ****** Psychological Science at Work: Mozart Effect - • Numerous attempts at replicating the effect, often unsuccessful • Attempts to look at the duration of the effect • Attempts looking at the effect of other types of music • -- Arousal and pleasantness? Research Ethics - autonomy beneficence justice Autonomy - allow people to make their own decisions • Informed consent -- Risks and benefits of participation • Deception is justified -- By debriefing -- telling participants at end why deception was important to study • Right to withdraw participation at anytime Beneficence - Maximize benefits while minimizing harm • Monitor and intervene if something bad occurs • Keep a participant's data confidential Justice - fair treatment • Selection of research participants Animal Research - Controversial Reasons: • Greater control • Ability to perform some research it would not be ethical to conduct in humans Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) First woman to to receive Ph.D in Psychology - Margaret F. Washburn, The Animal Mind Critical Thinking (4) - Critical Thinking 1. There are very few "truths" that don't need to be subjected to testing. 2. All evidence is not equal in quality. 3. Just because someone is considered to be an authority does not make everything that person claims automatically true. 4. Critical thinking requires an open mind. Find the error in reasoning • A famous Nobel Prize-winning scientist announces that magnets can relieve back pain when rubbed on a person's back. He found 10 people with back pain and gave each of them magnet therapy. After the therapy, most of the people told him that their back pain was reduced. He concluded that magnets relieve back pain. - ? ? ? Find the error in reasoning • A teacher feels better when wearing bright colors. She hypothesizes that wearing brightly colored clothing can also improve the mood of people around her. She tests this using her students. She wears dull clothing to her morning class of 45 students and brightly colored clothing to her afternoon class of 45 students. She reports that her afternoon class seemed more alert and smiled more. She concludes that wearing bright colors improves other peoples' moods. - ? ? ? CHAPTER 2: Biological Perspective - CARDS 80-158 biological psychology (or behavioral neuroscience) - branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning Central Nervous System (CNS) - Brain and Spinal Chord -- Brain: interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands, and organs -- Spinal Cord: pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Peripheral nerves (aspects of nervous system that are not ESSENTIAL; organs) -- transmits information to and from the central nervous system Peripheral Nervous System consists of 2 parts: - autonomic nervous system -- automatically regulates glands, internal organs and blood vessels, pupil dilation, digestion, and blood pressure somatic nervous system -- carries sensory information and controls movement of the skeletal muscles The autonomic nervous system has 2 divisions: - parasympathetic division -- maintains body functions under ordinary conditions; saves energy sympathetic division -- prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress Gray Matter - MOSTLY neurons Neurons - MOSTLY Gray matter specialized cells that Receives & Sends messages White Matter - Glia Glia - o White Matter (More FATTY cells) o 90% of cells in nervous system o Supportive role: nutrients, repair damage, form myelin, get rid of waste... Neuron Parts - Soma - cell ody Dendrite - branching arms (like a tree) receive info/messages from other cells/dendrites Axon - Sends information/passes messages away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles or glands -- some are Myelinated (myelin sheath) glial cells, which covers the axon and helps to increase speed of transmission of neural impulses Terminal Buttons - where the axon ends; form connections/junctions with other neurons/cells ? Axon Hillock - ? Base of the axon, where axon connects with cell body. ? Acts as a trigger. Action Potential - -- electrical signal traveling down the axon • occur in an ALL-OR-NOTHING fashion! *** EX: How does the strength of the message get coded (e.g., loud sounds vs. soft sounds)? {CHART} • Fast versus Slow: Myelination • Oligodendrocytes: CNS • Schwann cells: PNS ? brief permeability of sodium ions (IN) and potassium ions (OUT) Oligodendrocytes - Central NS Schwan Cells - Peripheral NS Synapse - - (or synaptic gap) in the tiny gap between the tip of the axon of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron Neurotransmitter - Neurotransmitters (chemicals) released from the sending neuron, travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing it. -- They can have an excitatory or inhibitory effect. excitatory effect VS inhibitory effect - excitatory effect (turns cells on) inhibitory effect (turns cells off) Neurotransmitter: Glutamate - MAJOR excitatory neurotransmitter (turns cells on) -- involved ink earning, memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity Neurotransmitter: GABA - MAJOR inhibitory neurotransmitter (turns cells off) -- involved in sleep and inhibits movement Neurotransmitter: Serotonin - excitatory or inhibitory •Mood, hunger, sleep, and anxiety Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine - excitatory or inhibitory •Responsible for muscle movement/contractions •Learning new memory, arousal, attention Neurotransmitter: Dopamine - excitatory or inhibitory •Movements, sensations of pleasure Neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine - mainly excitatory -- involved in arousal and mood Neurotransmitter: Neuropeptides - inhibitory neural regulators -- EX: Endorphins -- released during experience of pain Cleaning Synapse - •Neurotransmitters in the synapse are either... (a) reabsorbed into the sending neurons through reuptake (b) diffuse or (c) are broken down by enzymes. These process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action. -- This process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action Drugs are categorized under 2 types - agonist antagonist Agonist - increases the original message of the neurotransmitter was supposed to send Antagonist - blocks original message that neurotransmitter was supposed to send -- Some drugs act by affecting the amount of neurotransmitter available at the synapse Spinal Chord Reflect (3) EX: touching fire - Spinal cord; reflex arc neurons: (fire stimulates pain receptors/sensory neurons) 1. [Afferent] Sensory Neurons - from senses to spinal chord (excite interneurons) [access spinal cord] 2. Interneurons - connect afferent to efferent (excite motor neurons) 3. [Efferent] Motor Neurons - from spinal chord to muscles (motor nerves exit spinal cord, excite muscles, and initiate movement) [exit spinal cord] -- This is why a reflex is so fast ! neuroplasticity - ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma