PROBLEM SOLVING
A problem arises when a living organism has a goal, but does not know how this goal is
reached (Duncker, 1945).
A problem has several steps, and must been taken consciously and planned in
advance. The goal has to be well-defined.
Problem solving (Eysenck & Keane, 2020): is goal-directed, involves cognitive
processes and only exists when someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce an
immediate solution.
TYPES OF PROBLEMS AVAILABLE:
Insight problems: solutions require a one-off insight. Like a flash realisation.
Non-insight problems: require incremental and sequential problem solving.
THEORIES OF PROBLEM SOLVING
REPRESENTATIONAL CHANGE THEORY:
(Ohlosson, 1992): when you encounter a problem you form a mental representation of
it. Current representation is used to search memory for relevant. A block occurs when
the problem representation is inappropriate/wrong.
The block can be passed by changing the representation: elaboration (new info),
constraint relaxation (extend ideas of what actions are possible) and re-encoding
(change the way you think of the problem).
Insight often follows the formation of a correct representation of the problem.
The nine dot problem:
GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER THEORY:
(Newell & Simon, 1972): wanted to design a computer program that would solve any
problem. Came up with the idea of problem space that there is an initial state and a
goal state and many intermediate states with many operators.
Humans use many heuristics (rules of thumb) as operators in complex problems:
- means ends analysis: you know the goal stage and trying to come up with ways to
get from initial to goal stage. You form sub goals to gradually get to the solution.
- hill-climbing: don’t know what sub goals are appropriate. this involves simply
choosing an operator that is closer to the goal state.
TRANSFER:
Does previous experience lead to positive or negative transfer?
Candle problem (Duncker, 1945): attach the candle to the wall without it dripping,
many ppts did not use Duncker’s ideal solution (using the tack box). There is a
, functional fixedness, the box is for holding tacks not candles (using past knowledge,
negative transfer).
Positive transfer: the use of similarities between the current problem and relevant
previous problems.
Negative transfer: past knowledge prevents seeing the solution due to functional
fixedness. (evidence: more ppts were able to solve the problem if the tacks box was
empty). Also trying to use the same strategy twice even though it won’t work
(habituation)
Luchins (1942): past experience can be detrimental to performance on some tasks.
Surface vs. structural similarity: surface similarity is irrelevant to finding the
solution, it is just about the surface details and components of the problem. Structural
similarity is based on how the different components of the problem interact/function
with each other.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
WHAT IS ATTENTION?
Focused Attention à a
situation in which
individuals try to attend
to only one source of
information while
ignoring other stimuli;
also known as selective
attention
, Divided Attention à a
situation in which two
tasks are performed at
the same time; also
known as multi-tasking
Focused Attention: a situation in which individuals try to attend to only one source
of information while ignoring other stimuli; also known as selective attention.
Divided Attention: a situation in which two tasks are performed at the same time;
also known as multi-tasking.
Shadow: repeating the information in the test that is needed
FOCUSED AUDITORY ATTENTION:
Dichotic listening is the listening of both ears,
and Cherry (1953) investigated if it were
possible to ‘shadow’ the message to one ear
and ignore the message to the other ear. Also
if the info ‘ignored’ can be remembered.
Ppts were asked to listen to a message from one ear whilst ignoring another message
played in the other ear. Ppts were then asked about the content of the ‘unattended’
message.
Results showed that they did not notice if the language changed from English to
German or if the speech was reversed. Ppts could report the gender of the speaker and
whether the message contained speech or non-speech.
The investigation concluded that people process ‘unattended’ information ONLY to
the level of physical features, as well as no semantic information is available from the
‘unattended’ message.
EARLY AND LATE SELECTION MODELS
Early selection model: (Broadbent, 1958) Broadbent’s approach suggests a
bottleneck early in processing, and that therefore there should be little or no
processing of unattended auditory messages.
- There is an initial filtering processes that allow information from one input or
message through it on the basis of its physical characteristics. This is because
individuals cannot physically process everything; humans have limited capacity
processing therefore there is early selections.
A problem arises when a living organism has a goal, but does not know how this goal is
reached (Duncker, 1945).
A problem has several steps, and must been taken consciously and planned in
advance. The goal has to be well-defined.
Problem solving (Eysenck & Keane, 2020): is goal-directed, involves cognitive
processes and only exists when someone lacks the relevant knowledge to produce an
immediate solution.
TYPES OF PROBLEMS AVAILABLE:
Insight problems: solutions require a one-off insight. Like a flash realisation.
Non-insight problems: require incremental and sequential problem solving.
THEORIES OF PROBLEM SOLVING
REPRESENTATIONAL CHANGE THEORY:
(Ohlosson, 1992): when you encounter a problem you form a mental representation of
it. Current representation is used to search memory for relevant. A block occurs when
the problem representation is inappropriate/wrong.
The block can be passed by changing the representation: elaboration (new info),
constraint relaxation (extend ideas of what actions are possible) and re-encoding
(change the way you think of the problem).
Insight often follows the formation of a correct representation of the problem.
The nine dot problem:
GENERAL PROBLEM SOLVER THEORY:
(Newell & Simon, 1972): wanted to design a computer program that would solve any
problem. Came up with the idea of problem space that there is an initial state and a
goal state and many intermediate states with many operators.
Humans use many heuristics (rules of thumb) as operators in complex problems:
- means ends analysis: you know the goal stage and trying to come up with ways to
get from initial to goal stage. You form sub goals to gradually get to the solution.
- hill-climbing: don’t know what sub goals are appropriate. this involves simply
choosing an operator that is closer to the goal state.
TRANSFER:
Does previous experience lead to positive or negative transfer?
Candle problem (Duncker, 1945): attach the candle to the wall without it dripping,
many ppts did not use Duncker’s ideal solution (using the tack box). There is a
, functional fixedness, the box is for holding tacks not candles (using past knowledge,
negative transfer).
Positive transfer: the use of similarities between the current problem and relevant
previous problems.
Negative transfer: past knowledge prevents seeing the solution due to functional
fixedness. (evidence: more ppts were able to solve the problem if the tacks box was
empty). Also trying to use the same strategy twice even though it won’t work
(habituation)
Luchins (1942): past experience can be detrimental to performance on some tasks.
Surface vs. structural similarity: surface similarity is irrelevant to finding the
solution, it is just about the surface details and components of the problem. Structural
similarity is based on how the different components of the problem interact/function
with each other.
SELECTIVE ATTENTION
WHAT IS ATTENTION?
Focused Attention à a
situation in which
individuals try to attend
to only one source of
information while
ignoring other stimuli;
also known as selective
attention
, Divided Attention à a
situation in which two
tasks are performed at
the same time; also
known as multi-tasking
Focused Attention: a situation in which individuals try to attend to only one source
of information while ignoring other stimuli; also known as selective attention.
Divided Attention: a situation in which two tasks are performed at the same time;
also known as multi-tasking.
Shadow: repeating the information in the test that is needed
FOCUSED AUDITORY ATTENTION:
Dichotic listening is the listening of both ears,
and Cherry (1953) investigated if it were
possible to ‘shadow’ the message to one ear
and ignore the message to the other ear. Also
if the info ‘ignored’ can be remembered.
Ppts were asked to listen to a message from one ear whilst ignoring another message
played in the other ear. Ppts were then asked about the content of the ‘unattended’
message.
Results showed that they did not notice if the language changed from English to
German or if the speech was reversed. Ppts could report the gender of the speaker and
whether the message contained speech or non-speech.
The investigation concluded that people process ‘unattended’ information ONLY to
the level of physical features, as well as no semantic information is available from the
‘unattended’ message.
EARLY AND LATE SELECTION MODELS
Early selection model: (Broadbent, 1958) Broadbent’s approach suggests a
bottleneck early in processing, and that therefore there should be little or no
processing of unattended auditory messages.
- There is an initial filtering processes that allow information from one input or
message through it on the basis of its physical characteristics. This is because
individuals cannot physically process everything; humans have limited capacity
processing therefore there is early selections.
