Russia 1855-1964
Nature of Government
Structure Ideology Repression
Alexander II
- Introduction of zemstva in rural - The rst form of representation - Increase in the circulation of
communities and town dumas in was introduced meaning that the newspapers, periodicals and books
1870 with emancipation reforms tsar now had some form of (1855: 1020 books published, 1894:
- The rst time that a democratic accountability instead of being an 10,691 books published which was the
element had been introduced unquestioned ruler combined total roughly of USA and
into the Russian government - Adhered strongly to autocracy Britain)
system after the rst assassination - Right to withdraw publications
- Dominated by soviets and attempt made on him in 1866
wasn’t truly representative due
to electives being selected by
property quali cation
Alexander III
- bolished the Council of - Kept even closer in line with - Established the Okhrana in 1881 to
ministers in 1882 and duties autocracy after blaming moves imprison and spy on opposition (SRs
were shared among other towards liberalism for his father’s and SDs)
administrations assassination in 1881 - Ordered the assassination of Lenin’s
- The bodies were kept weak so - Reversed many changes his brother and many Jews (anti-semitism)
they didn’t have enough power father had made, strengthening - Closed down some newspapers,
to challenge the tsar his autocratic rule journals and educational institutions
Nicholas II
- Introduced the state duma, - Tsar had a body making decisions - Dissolved the Duma when he saw
representation at a national level on a state level for the rst time, them as a threat, rst Duma dissolved
for the rst time no longer had all the power after the Address to the Throne
- Still answered to the Tsar, - Made liberal concessions and his demanding freedoms to strike, protest,
disbanded four times and it was dilution of reforms in the vote
restricted by The Fundamental Fundamental Laws were - Agent provocateurs (encouraged
Laws of 1906 which gave the signi cant as they helped people to break the law)
tsar more power preserve autocracy
- Saw the need for representation
only to avoid revolution following
1905, wanted to remain an
autocratic ruler
Provisional Government
- Drastic change in structure of - Freedom of speech, press and - Abandoned Okhrana giving freedom of
government, state now run by assembly, and the right to form speech for the rst time
two groups (Provisional unions and to strike - Still some censorship during the war
Government and Petrograd - Abolition of restrictions based on
Soviet) with no leader, duel class, religion and nationality
power - They were not elected and
- There were still no elections so elections never took place so
no representation there was actually no democracy
Lenin
- One party state - Communism was introduced - Drastic change in repression with the
- The Cheka was introduced to which meant the country was Cheka established in December
prevent counter-revolutionaries now a representation of the 1917under Dzerzhinsky to attack
and there was the expulsion of working class instead of the elite counter revolutionary groups
other parties from government nobles under the Provisional - Red Terror: estimated number of
such as the Mensheviks and Government, the Tsar or the killings between 100,000 and 200,000
Social Revolutionaries Duma - Press freedom abolished almost
- Power was seized in the name of immediately
the proletariat - ‘Peace, Bread and Land’ and ‘All
Power to Soviets’
Page 1 of 25 A Level History
fi fi fi fifi fi fi
, Russia 1855-1964
Stalin
- Set-up the Supreme Soviet of - Singular leader with a cult of - NKVD established in 1934 under
the USSR personality in charge of a Yagoda instilled permanent terror
- Members elected by electoral Communist government through purges and show trials and
districts representing 30,000 representing the people with heavy censorship (all published work
people with elections to take democratic centralism needed to had to be approved by the party)
place every four years implement economic policies
Khruschev
- Broke up central ministries - Deconstructed Stalin’s cult of - Stray from repression releasing 1.5
- Changing power back to the personality by informing the million prisoners from the gulags and
regions public of all his crimes and ended not executing his opponents (Molotov,
- Attempted to move away from Stalin’s ban on freedom of Malenkov and Zhukov)
Stalinism and a personalised expression - 65,000 books published per year by
super structure - Introduced de-Stalinisation the 1950s
- KGB formed in 1964 as a secret police
- More focused on international con icts
such as the Cold War
Key Features of Autocracy:
Singular, unquestioned ruler seen as ‘chosen by God’ with complete power over the country
Political System Under Provisional Government:
Dual power under the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet. Seen as an intermediary until free
elections could take place to enact democracy for the rst time
Leninism:
Leninism was the belief that a party was needed to transition the country into a socialist state, governing
and leading in the name of the workers until they could lead themselves. The society would be changed
through the workers and constant revolution
Stalinism:
For socialism to succeed, you need a strong superstructure with highly personalised ruler to ensure the
nal victory of socialism
Destalinisation:
Reversion back to the party as the focus, disputing the idea of a personalised super structure, still with a
singular leader but without a cult of personality and much less repression
Nature of Government: Essay Structure Hierarchies
Structure Ideology Repression
Turning Point
1. Alexander II 1. Alexander II 1. Alexander III
2. Nicholas II 2. Provisional Government 2. Stalin
3. Provisional Government 3. Lenin 3. Khrushchev
2v2 (change/continuity)
1. Provisional Government 1. Provisional Government 1. Alexander II
2. Stalin 2. Khrushchev 2. Provisional Government
1. Alexander III 1. Alexander III 1. Lenin
2. Nicholas II 2. Nicholas II 2. Stalin
2v2 (positive/negative change)
1. Alexander II 1. Provisional Government 1. Alexander II
2. Nicholas II 2. Khrushchev 2. Provisional Government
1. Alexander III 1. Lenin 1. Lenin
2. Lenin 2. Stalin 2. Stalin
Page 2 of 25 A Level History
fi fl fi
, Russia 1855-1964
Economy
Agriculture Industry Working Conditions
Alexander II
- Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 - Railway building increased seven- - Peasants lives to be very poor but
allowed peasants to buy their fold stimulated by British success acting as their own master
own land and farm it (amount of railway track opened
- Agriculture did not develop since rose from 2194 miles to 13,979
they were still tied to the mir and miles between 1862 and 1878)
had to pay redemption payments
Alexander III
- Exported large amounts of grain, - Witte’s reforms heavily increased - Continued poor quality of working
even with the prospect of a industrialisation, taking out foreign and living conditions for peasants
domestic shortage and starvation, loans and raising taxes causing
to raise money through tari s 1891-2 Black Earth famine
(resulted in 1891 famine and a
decline in agricultural produce)
Nicholas II
- Stolypin’s land reforms meant - Witte’s reforms meant that coal - Reduced working day to eleven and
that poorly utilised land was production doubling and iron and a half days
made available to the Peasant steel increased seven fold and - Introduced Health Insurance in 1912
Land Bank as well as allowing income earned from industry rose
peasants to consolidate their land from 42million roubles to 161
into smallholdings, end of million roubles between 1893 and
redemption payments 1897 making Russia the fourth
- These measures encouraged largest industrial power (coal) by
peasants to leave the village 1913
communes with 2 million by 1914
Provisional Government
- Provisional Government wanted - Despite appointing minister for - Reduced working day to seven hours
Constituent Assembly to resolve industry, there were little to no - After the revolution workers expected
land dispute but nothing was changes or policies conditions and wages to improve to
accomplished as many members a much greater extent
of the government were - 237 plots of land seized in July 1917
landowners so didn’t want to lose alone (didn’t satisfy peasants
land with no compensation demands for more land to farm/
cultivate)
Lenin
- 1917 Decree on Land gave - Due to the civil war, coal - November 1918 Decree on Workers’
private land holdings to peasants production fell from 29 million Control: Workers Committees were
to help end grain requisitioning tonnes in 1913 to 8.9 million given extra power to run factories
tonnes in 1921 with high in ation - Militarisation of labour with discipline
- War Communism, needed food increased, reintroduced passports as
for industrialisation workers part of War Communism
leading to 1921 famine
Stalin
- Push for collectivisation forcing - Stalin’s Five Year Plan had high - Working conditions very poor due to
peasants into large communes targets in iron, steel, coal and oil focus on high targets, long working
(collective farms) with very high meaning that by 1936 the USSR days and weeks which also led to
production targets and little was producing 15,000 tonnes of show trials
freedom iron, 4000 tonnes of pig iron and
2500 tonnes of steel every day
- Caused grain requisitioning
- Not accurate due to unrealistic
targets
Page 3 of 25 A Level History
flff
Nature of Government
Structure Ideology Repression
Alexander II
- Introduction of zemstva in rural - The rst form of representation - Increase in the circulation of
communities and town dumas in was introduced meaning that the newspapers, periodicals and books
1870 with emancipation reforms tsar now had some form of (1855: 1020 books published, 1894:
- The rst time that a democratic accountability instead of being an 10,691 books published which was the
element had been introduced unquestioned ruler combined total roughly of USA and
into the Russian government - Adhered strongly to autocracy Britain)
system after the rst assassination - Right to withdraw publications
- Dominated by soviets and attempt made on him in 1866
wasn’t truly representative due
to electives being selected by
property quali cation
Alexander III
- bolished the Council of - Kept even closer in line with - Established the Okhrana in 1881 to
ministers in 1882 and duties autocracy after blaming moves imprison and spy on opposition (SRs
were shared among other towards liberalism for his father’s and SDs)
administrations assassination in 1881 - Ordered the assassination of Lenin’s
- The bodies were kept weak so - Reversed many changes his brother and many Jews (anti-semitism)
they didn’t have enough power father had made, strengthening - Closed down some newspapers,
to challenge the tsar his autocratic rule journals and educational institutions
Nicholas II
- Introduced the state duma, - Tsar had a body making decisions - Dissolved the Duma when he saw
representation at a national level on a state level for the rst time, them as a threat, rst Duma dissolved
for the rst time no longer had all the power after the Address to the Throne
- Still answered to the Tsar, - Made liberal concessions and his demanding freedoms to strike, protest,
disbanded four times and it was dilution of reforms in the vote
restricted by The Fundamental Fundamental Laws were - Agent provocateurs (encouraged
Laws of 1906 which gave the signi cant as they helped people to break the law)
tsar more power preserve autocracy
- Saw the need for representation
only to avoid revolution following
1905, wanted to remain an
autocratic ruler
Provisional Government
- Drastic change in structure of - Freedom of speech, press and - Abandoned Okhrana giving freedom of
government, state now run by assembly, and the right to form speech for the rst time
two groups (Provisional unions and to strike - Still some censorship during the war
Government and Petrograd - Abolition of restrictions based on
Soviet) with no leader, duel class, religion and nationality
power - They were not elected and
- There were still no elections so elections never took place so
no representation there was actually no democracy
Lenin
- One party state - Communism was introduced - Drastic change in repression with the
- The Cheka was introduced to which meant the country was Cheka established in December
prevent counter-revolutionaries now a representation of the 1917under Dzerzhinsky to attack
and there was the expulsion of working class instead of the elite counter revolutionary groups
other parties from government nobles under the Provisional - Red Terror: estimated number of
such as the Mensheviks and Government, the Tsar or the killings between 100,000 and 200,000
Social Revolutionaries Duma - Press freedom abolished almost
- Power was seized in the name of immediately
the proletariat - ‘Peace, Bread and Land’ and ‘All
Power to Soviets’
Page 1 of 25 A Level History
fi fi fi fifi fi fi
, Russia 1855-1964
Stalin
- Set-up the Supreme Soviet of - Singular leader with a cult of - NKVD established in 1934 under
the USSR personality in charge of a Yagoda instilled permanent terror
- Members elected by electoral Communist government through purges and show trials and
districts representing 30,000 representing the people with heavy censorship (all published work
people with elections to take democratic centralism needed to had to be approved by the party)
place every four years implement economic policies
Khruschev
- Broke up central ministries - Deconstructed Stalin’s cult of - Stray from repression releasing 1.5
- Changing power back to the personality by informing the million prisoners from the gulags and
regions public of all his crimes and ended not executing his opponents (Molotov,
- Attempted to move away from Stalin’s ban on freedom of Malenkov and Zhukov)
Stalinism and a personalised expression - 65,000 books published per year by
super structure - Introduced de-Stalinisation the 1950s
- KGB formed in 1964 as a secret police
- More focused on international con icts
such as the Cold War
Key Features of Autocracy:
Singular, unquestioned ruler seen as ‘chosen by God’ with complete power over the country
Political System Under Provisional Government:
Dual power under the Provisional Government and Petrograd Soviet. Seen as an intermediary until free
elections could take place to enact democracy for the rst time
Leninism:
Leninism was the belief that a party was needed to transition the country into a socialist state, governing
and leading in the name of the workers until they could lead themselves. The society would be changed
through the workers and constant revolution
Stalinism:
For socialism to succeed, you need a strong superstructure with highly personalised ruler to ensure the
nal victory of socialism
Destalinisation:
Reversion back to the party as the focus, disputing the idea of a personalised super structure, still with a
singular leader but without a cult of personality and much less repression
Nature of Government: Essay Structure Hierarchies
Structure Ideology Repression
Turning Point
1. Alexander II 1. Alexander II 1. Alexander III
2. Nicholas II 2. Provisional Government 2. Stalin
3. Provisional Government 3. Lenin 3. Khrushchev
2v2 (change/continuity)
1. Provisional Government 1. Provisional Government 1. Alexander II
2. Stalin 2. Khrushchev 2. Provisional Government
1. Alexander III 1. Alexander III 1. Lenin
2. Nicholas II 2. Nicholas II 2. Stalin
2v2 (positive/negative change)
1. Alexander II 1. Provisional Government 1. Alexander II
2. Nicholas II 2. Khrushchev 2. Provisional Government
1. Alexander III 1. Lenin 1. Lenin
2. Lenin 2. Stalin 2. Stalin
Page 2 of 25 A Level History
fi fl fi
, Russia 1855-1964
Economy
Agriculture Industry Working Conditions
Alexander II
- Emancipation of the Serfs in 1861 - Railway building increased seven- - Peasants lives to be very poor but
allowed peasants to buy their fold stimulated by British success acting as their own master
own land and farm it (amount of railway track opened
- Agriculture did not develop since rose from 2194 miles to 13,979
they were still tied to the mir and miles between 1862 and 1878)
had to pay redemption payments
Alexander III
- Exported large amounts of grain, - Witte’s reforms heavily increased - Continued poor quality of working
even with the prospect of a industrialisation, taking out foreign and living conditions for peasants
domestic shortage and starvation, loans and raising taxes causing
to raise money through tari s 1891-2 Black Earth famine
(resulted in 1891 famine and a
decline in agricultural produce)
Nicholas II
- Stolypin’s land reforms meant - Witte’s reforms meant that coal - Reduced working day to eleven and
that poorly utilised land was production doubling and iron and a half days
made available to the Peasant steel increased seven fold and - Introduced Health Insurance in 1912
Land Bank as well as allowing income earned from industry rose
peasants to consolidate their land from 42million roubles to 161
into smallholdings, end of million roubles between 1893 and
redemption payments 1897 making Russia the fourth
- These measures encouraged largest industrial power (coal) by
peasants to leave the village 1913
communes with 2 million by 1914
Provisional Government
- Provisional Government wanted - Despite appointing minister for - Reduced working day to seven hours
Constituent Assembly to resolve industry, there were little to no - After the revolution workers expected
land dispute but nothing was changes or policies conditions and wages to improve to
accomplished as many members a much greater extent
of the government were - 237 plots of land seized in July 1917
landowners so didn’t want to lose alone (didn’t satisfy peasants
land with no compensation demands for more land to farm/
cultivate)
Lenin
- 1917 Decree on Land gave - Due to the civil war, coal - November 1918 Decree on Workers’
private land holdings to peasants production fell from 29 million Control: Workers Committees were
to help end grain requisitioning tonnes in 1913 to 8.9 million given extra power to run factories
tonnes in 1921 with high in ation - Militarisation of labour with discipline
- War Communism, needed food increased, reintroduced passports as
for industrialisation workers part of War Communism
leading to 1921 famine
Stalin
- Push for collectivisation forcing - Stalin’s Five Year Plan had high - Working conditions very poor due to
peasants into large communes targets in iron, steel, coal and oil focus on high targets, long working
(collective farms) with very high meaning that by 1936 the USSR days and weeks which also led to
production targets and little was producing 15,000 tonnes of show trials
freedom iron, 4000 tonnes of pig iron and
2500 tonnes of steel every day
- Caused grain requisitioning
- Not accurate due to unrealistic
targets
Page 3 of 25 A Level History
flff
