A comprehensive set of notes for the AQA A-Level 2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945 course. Covers Fascist society, 1926–1940.
Includes: propaganda, education, economic policies and fascist society.
Fascist Society, 1926-1940
Mussolini’s dream was ‘to turn Italians into Fascists’.
Propaganda themes
Il Duce was the divine leader and centre of Italian Fascism. The ‘cult of the Duce’ was in many
respects the unifying force of Italian Fascism. The image of Mussolini as a practitioner of various
sports including fencing, skiing and lion taming was promoted to create an image of a valiant and
fearless hero. Legends of Mussolini defying death during WW1 were circulated to give him a
mythical, immortal aura (it was stated that Mussolini’s body had been pierced by shrapnel just like
Saint Sebastien had been pierced by arrows).
Militarism. Violence and war were glorified, with the March on Rome often depicted mythically as a
bloody and heroic seize of power. Mussolini said that ‘war is to a man what maternity is to a woman’.
Unity. Italy was greater than any individual purpose. This was symbolised by the fasces (the bound
sticks being stronger than individuality).
Nationalism and imperialism. Reviving the glories of the Roman Empire was a common theme in
Italian propaganda.
Obedience and discipline.
Ancient Rome was used as inspiration and justification for Fascist policies. The fasces had been
carried by the Romans as a symbol of authority. Mussolini modelled himself after Augustus, who had
established order out of chaos; Mussolini had unified the country and planned to lead the country to
glory.
The development of propaganda
Italian propaganda has been described as ‘amateurish’ (Tannenbaum), ecspecially when compared to
Nazi Germany, reducing its effectiveness. This was particularly evident in regard to the regime’s
antisemitic policies and alliance with Nazi Germany.
In 1935, all aspects of culture came under a ministry. In 1937, it was renamed the Ministry of Popular
Culture, or ‘Minculpop’ (a sarcastic nickname suggesting it had a limited effect).
Victorious Abyssinian War in 1935-6 used as propaganda to glorify the Italian Empire. It was far
from successful, however; lira was devalued by 40%, it was a large drain on economic and military
resources, it boosted Mussolini’s already inflated ego, pushed Italy further away from an alliance with
Britain and France and demonstrated the weakness of the LoN, encouraging Hitler’s ambitions.
Press
There was strong censorship of newspapers, which were believed to be key to spreading Fascist
propaganda. ‘Mussolini always believed that the pen was mightier than the sword’. (Clark).
Under the 1925 Press Law, journalists had to be registered and approved by the regime.
By 1926, all opposition party papers and the majority of foreign papers were banned.
The ‘correct’ version of events had to be printed. Reporting on crime, unemployment and disorder
forbidden. The word ‘Mezzogiorno’ was banned, as it evoked the ‘Southern question’.
Mussolini’s press office sent out detailed instructions on what to print, hence the restless Fascist
rhetoric, including images such as the ‘unsleeping’ Duce and his ‘masculine profile forged in bronze.’
Most censorship was carried out by editors themselves, with Prefects only rarely needing to intervene.
In 1935, the press office was absorbed into the Ministry of Popular Culture, increasing control.
However, by then other mass media had become more important.
The result was ‘emasculation rather than indoctrination’ (Clark). The Fascist Party newspaper had
only 10% circulation. The circulation of other newspapers, such as the Vatican paper was much
greater and underground papers continued (for example, Gramsci’s Communist l’Unita). Illiteracy
rate remained high, so impact of propaganda in newspapers was limited.
, Radio
The first radio stations were set up in 1924-5. By 1938, there over 1 million registered radio sets.
Content of radio controlled by the State and used to promote propaganda; 2hrs/day were dedicated to
official broadcasts; Mussolini’s major speeches were broadcast live; daily broadcast of ‘Chronicles of
Regime.
A special radio agency (ERR) was set up in 1933. With the establishment of the Ministry of Popular
Culture, the radio was brought under full state control.
OND ran community listening meetings in rural areas and areas of high illiteracy.
Success was limited. Radios were expensive, so few people owned them. Private listeners could
access foreign programs such as the BBC and the Rosselli broadcast from Spain.
Cinema
In the 1930s, cinema became the popular entertainment in Italy.
It was the responsibility of the General Directorate of Cinema to read and modify scripts and monitor
the importation of foreign films. The aim was not to ban films that did not agree with the Fascist
ideology, but modify them so that they did not contradict the government.
Cinemas were required to show censored news from abroad and several sports items before a film.
Most films were escapist entertainment, but several glorified Fascism and the regime’s achievements,
such as the war drama ‘Luciano Serra, pilota’.
In 1938, ¾ of ticket sales were for US-produced films. As a result, culture in Italy became
Americanised. The main effect of mass cinema-going was that many Italians were far more impressed
by the Hollywood image of life in the US than with the realities of life in Fascist Italy.
Sport & rallies
Sport promoted discipline, commitment to the regime and national pride.
In 1934, Italy not only staged the World Cup, but won it. The Duce himself attended the final, and
handed out the medals to his victorious team. The Italians won the Olympic Football Championship in
1936 and the World Cup again in 1938. These sporting achievements contributed much to the
government’s general popularity.
Thompson argues that the channelling of emotions into nationalistic competitiveness bound many to
Mussolini and the regime.
Large rallies promoted discipline and a collective identity.
Art
Art was used as propaganda and to advance prestige abroad.
The government organised around 50 art festivals and exhibitions a year. The Venice ‘Biennale’
became a major international event, showcasing Italian art and culture. The 1932, Exhibition of the
Fascist Revolution showcased the achievements of Italy in the 10 years since Mussolini had come to
power.
The image of Mussolini as the divine leader promoted. For example, in 1936 a large monument of
Mussolini’s head was built in Abyssinia.
Regime favoured futurism and modernist architecture, which emphasised strength and power.
Roman architecture was also incorporated (the Palace of Congresses’ pillars were reminiscent of the
forums in the Roman Empire), linking the Fascist regime with the glory of the Roman Empire.
Mussolini began a reconstruction of Rome, with many buildings demolished for the his new via dei
Fori Imperiali. He also planned for a new exhibition city; however, this was never complete.
Reconstruction showed the power and permanence of the state.
Italians were often impressed by Fascist cultural achievements, partly because they got attention and
admiration from abroad.
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