“And as imagination bodies forth the forms of things unknown, the poet’s pen turns them to shapes and gives to airy
nothing a local habitation and a name” by Shakespeare
Il parle du travail de l’écrivain, de donner un lieu et un nom à ces choses inconnues pour nous lecteurs.
A summary of what you are expected to do when studying a literary text What you first need to pay attention to is: the
characters involved in the text ,the setting ,the notion of time , the narration ,the focalization ,the tropes and symbols
present in the text ,(+ the genre it belongs to if you know it)
I. The characters
Remember: a character remains a textual creation yet, a realistic description can lead you to consider a character as “an
extended verbal representation of a human being” (Roberts in Writing themes about literature).
You need to determine the character’s major traits or what you may call his “typical modes of behavior and response”
(Roberts).
Pay attention to the methods of description used:
Is it direct telling or indirect showing :
(est ce qu’il vous les dit de façon directe ou vous les fait comprendre de façon indirecte). Si ça nous est juste montré il va
falloir être plus actif, plus réfléchir. Anton chekhov: auteur russe (XIX-XXème) qui a bcp théorisé l’écriture. : “don’t tell me
the moon is shining; show me the glint of light on broken glass”.
Names and titles or what is called onomastics :
They are never innocent choices and they reveal a lot about a character, but they can also be misleading. Flannery
O’Connor est célèbre pour de grandes nouvelles, très sombres, déprimantes sur la nature humaine. Elle choisissait des
noms de personnages très flagrants comme “Mrs Short” or “Ms Nice”. On se demande du coup so elle les nomme comme
ça parce que c’est vrai, ou si c’est de l’ironie parce que l’inverse est vrai.
The characters physical appearance and clothing :
ce que l’on fait porté au personnage permet de déduire son milieu social. Mais parfois c’est aussi des pièges. Ex: “a
character wearing glasses can be indirectly portrayed as an intellectual or on the contrary as someone whose vision is
impaired, not to be trusted, in both literal and metaphorical terms”: what he or she believes to be true might actually be
wrong and his or her faults and ideas can be ironically undermined.
The speech:
(en français le discours ne se fait que sans filtre dans les dialogue ou avec le discours indirect libre, quand on entre dans les
pensées du personnages: le narrateur parle mais il évoque les pensées du personnage): dramaticality, vocabulary, tone,
ability to communicate (can the character speak and be easily understood, or his/her ideas well conveyed, do other
characters have to infer (déduire) or guess what the character is actually trying to say, which can result in frustration or
misrepresentation or accent .
All of these can be relevant in terms of social class , historical or religious background , the characters willingness to speak
or his/her desire to hide things on the contrary , or an accent represented in the speech of the character can bring some
sort of “otherness” into the text.
Actions ( gestures and movements) : kinesics
They are a substitute for words . pay attention to habitual actions or on the contrary , to a unique action which will contrast
with habits.
Ex: a sudden pause after a series of frantic gestures -> does this show choc ? / Understanding ?/ Realisation? / physical
pain?
Amongst Women from John McGaheren
Setting :
The way it may affect characters and how objects are described . “An enclosed space “ may cause a feeling of confinement
or claustrophobia . “a classroom or a childhood home “ may elicit feelings of nostalgia .
“a particular object “ can take on a symbolic importance for a character or be representative of a place , a period in time , or
even another character.
II. Setting
, It can complement the indirect showing of a character or be in harmony with the character’s mood . Setting also contribute
to the building up of atmosphere. Here are a few questions you need to ask yourself :
Does the scene take place indoors or outdoors ?
Is the setting open or closed ? Single or multiple ? Natural or manufactured ? Static or dynamic ?
Then in relation to plot :
You can wonder whether the setting can be considered as an agent in the plot or as a mere backcloth.
In relation to time:
Does the description of the setting somehow slow down the action , or on the contrary , through the use of
symbols , suggest the flow of time ?
A setting most of the time , has got a referential function , that is to say a decisive part in the creation of a greater illusion of
reality. (space markers) .
Try and see if this referential function serves :
mimetic purposes ( what is unique about the setting , is then being stressed )
didactic purposes (the setting is then rather stereotyped in order to be representative of a whole series of similar
places , it is not unique .) , this is a way to pass judgment on a specific kind of place. For instance , a typical
classroom with its trademark blackboard , its lines of chairs and desks , the smell of ink and chalk …
-> you immediately know that the place connotes youth , childhood , knowledge , authority etc… Typing into
some shared knowledge about these places.
Setting can also acquire a symbolic function , stressing an archetypal dimension that has to be taken into account .
“la forêt “ s’oppose à la “civilisation” symboliquement .
III. Time
Genette “ figures 3” : Analyse
The period when the narrative was written .
The period in which the story is set . It can be the same or different from the above .
Does the author write about the period he lived in or about another period ?
The time span of the narrative .
Does the story cover a few hours in the life of the characters or many years or a lifetime ?
“Three hours between planes” Fitzgerald
“Rudolph Valentino “ Dos Pasos
The use of verbal tenses (past-present, and modals ) , une accumulation de modaux traduit une incertitude.
The passage of time in the narrative: slow , fast , are there pauses , flashbacks , delays or accelerations?
The position of the narrator as temporal organizer : his/her control over what is said or what is deliberately left
aside “a few days past before she saw him again”. If the narrator (celui qui raconte) and /or the focalising
character (celui qui voit) loses consciousness for a while within the story , you will have no information about
what happened during that time.
Thus , pay attention to :
Narrated time: le temps de la chose racontée ou le temps du signifié
Le contenu de l’histoire , les péripéties telles qu’elles ont été vécues
Narrative time : le temps du récit ou le temps du signifiant .
Le moment auquel on commence à nous raconter ces récits.
Note the different time markers is so far as they give you hints at the main categories of time study.
Order : la chose se passe de façon chronologique ou flashback / flashforward ?
Anachronizes are divided into 2 groups:
analepsis (flashbacks / retroversion ) : looking back on something and dealing with memory . The
functions of analepsis can be summed up :
postponing a solution and adding up to the suspense as the case may be .
Resituating an event in a different light.
Giving a glimpse at a character’s inner life through his/her memories
Prolepsis (anticipations) : looking forward at something .