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Samenvatting literatuur Migrants And Integration
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Literatuur migrants & integrationWeek 1
1.1 Hooghe, M., Trappers, A., Meuleman, B., & Reeskens, T. (2008). Migration to
European Countries: A structural explanation of patterns, 1980–2004.
International Migration Review, 42, 476–504.
There is not much information about why migrants specifically decide to settle in a particular country
and why they tend to avoid others. If we assume that migrants typically seek better living conditions,
from a purely economic point of view it would make sense that countries with the highest living
standards would attract a disproportional number of migrants, which does not seem to be the case.
Push factors (so the reason why people leave their own country) are well investigated. So, in this
article we concentrate on the pull factors: what attracts migration to European countries? There are
three approaches that are used in this article. First, economic and labor theories assume that
migrants react to shortages in the labor market, thus providing for an equilibrium in labor markets,
both in their country of origin and in the country they head to. Second, cultural and world system
theory assumes that migration patterns reflect center/periphery relations in the world system. A
third, social capital or social network approach basically assumes that migrants are attracted by the
fact that other migrants from the same ethnic group have already settled in the receiving society,
thus allowing for the occurrence of networks of recruitment.
Literature review
The push-pull framework focus on economic factors to explain migration as they assume that the
supply and demand effect (at the macro level) and individual cost-benefit (at the micro level)
eventually lead to the establishment of an equilibrium on the labor market, reached by the aggregate
effect of individual decisions to migrate to another country.
Criticism:
- The concepts were developed in an industrial era, and as such, they no longer offer the best
perspective on migration in a post-industrial, globalizing world.
- It has been ascertained that people leaving their country do not typically originate from the
poorest countries, as cost-benefit approaches would suggest.
Other more recently developed theories:
- World systems theory: Migrant flows are triggered when capitalist economic relations enter
non- or pre-capitalist societies.
- Portes and Rumbaut, a variation on world system theory: Apart from historical causes this
kind of structural unbalancing may also be brought about by means of mass communication,
which spreads information on Western lifestyle and shapes consumption expectations in the
culturally peripheral societies.
Theories which explain why migration flows may become persistent:
- These theories generally focus on networks linking migrants to a variety of people. Such
migration-facilitating networks tend to enlarge over time, reducing the costs and risks of
migration for ever-greater numbers of migrants. At the same time, migration becomes
, institutionalized. In this way, migration may become the norm rather than the exception for
the people within the networks.
It is important to say that these theoretical approaches do not exclude one another, and they do not
necessarily contradict one another.
Hypotheses
- Economic theory is most straightforward: Perceived shortages of skilled or unskilled labor will
lead to the influx of new worker groups. In this view, migration is mainly seen as a
mechanism to balance supply and demand on the labor market. This hypothesis can be
operationalized by investigating the relation between various economic indicators and the
influx of migrants into the country.
- The world system theory paradigm stresses the role of cultural elements. Here it is assumed
that migrants will tend to move from peripheral to central countries.
o Hypothesis: International migration is especially likely between past colonial powers
and their former colonies, because cultural, linguistic, administrative, investment,
transportation, and communication links were established early and were allowed to
develop free from outside competition during the colonial era, leading to the
formation of specific transnational markets and cultural systems.
- Finally the social networks explanation stresses the effect of chain migration.
o Hypothesis: The size of the migratory flow between two countries is not strongly
correlated to wage differentials or employment rates, because whatever effects
these variables have in promoting or inhibiting migration are progressively
overshadowed by the falling costs and risks of movement stemming from the growth
of migrant networks over time.
Data and methods
The data that has been used is the OECD dataset. In this dataset there are numbers about the stock
of foreigners within the country and the total number of foreigners arriving in the country during
that year, divided across the country of origin.
A look at the figures
the number of immigrants Europe receives on average rises by 84,000/year. This observed rise in
migration inflow can be attributed to almost every European country: except for Finland and Greece,
all European countries received significantly more immigrants in the 1990s and the first years of the
twenty-first century than in the 1980–1990 period. The population of almost every European country
has become more ethnically and culturally diverse between 1980 and 2004.
Testing the economic hypotheses
In this analysis, the dependent variable is the immigration flow into the country, for the years
between 1980 and 2004. They used a general linear mixed modeling to analyze this hypothesis. This
statistical method renders it possible to distinguish different levels of analysis: in this case we can
make a distinction between level I effects (the year within the country series) and level II effects (the
country, which serves as a higher level). In our first model, we test the economic explanation for the
attractiveness of a country. In this model we try to predict the migration flow by using the following
independent variables:
- Unemployment rate: percentage of the active population that is registered as unemployed;
, - Economic growth: real GDP growth (percentage change on the previous year);
- GDP per capita, as an indicator for the wealth of a country; – total social expenditure (in
percentage of GDP).
The results in Table 2 show that most hypotheses derived from the literature on economic
explanations for migration are not confirmed in this analysis. Gross domestic product/capita is not
significantly related to the influx of migrants, indicating that migrants do not systematically select the
richest countries among the OECD member states. Unemployment is the only variable with a
significant impact. The effect is negative: low unemployment figures seem to attract migrants.
To summarize, the economic analysis did not reveal any significant effects for GDP/capita,
evolution in GDP, or social expenditure in the host country. It did reveal, however, that migration
patterns respond to increased demands on the labor market, with a reaction time or time lag of
approximately one year.
Testing the world system approach: colonial past
As the results in Table 5 indicate, the distance from a country to the equator does not influence the
inflow of migrants. In our first model, we simply confirm the fact that the number of inhabitants of
the former colonies has a significant effect on the current number of immigrants entering the
country. This finding supports the cultural approach: the more inhabitants in the former colonies of a
country, the larger the immigration flows that country receives. When we subsequently also include
an interaction effect between time and the variable “population of former colonies”, this also exerts
a significant effect. This indicates that, all countries combined, the effect of the colonial past still
seems to be rising. After controlling this result with the UK observations. After the interaction term is
included here, this isn’t significant anymore, indicating that if we do not take into consideration the
United Kingdom, the impact of the former colonial past does not seem to increase over time.
World system hypotheses: language
The analysis shows that European countries whose official language is spoken by a large number of
persons outside the country indeed attract a larger number of immigrants. However, the effect of
language dominance is smaller than that of the colonial past.
Network approach
As we saw in Table 1, in 1980 Southern and Eastern European countries had a very small stock of
foreigners, while in recent years they have become rather popular as settler countries. If migration
patterns where only dependent on chain migration, these changes over time would be hard to
explain, since immigrants would simply have to continue to go to the countries in which they already
have networks available. This is obviously not the case.
Political control variables
At first sight, there is some influence from the presence of legislation against discrimination:
countries with such legislation (mostly in Northern Europe) tend to attract fewer immigrants. This
finding, however, does not prove to be stable: if we exclude the countries where we do not have full-
time series on unemployment, the relation disappears. It is possible that the role of state policies
does play an important role, but that we fail to discover it because of lack of statistical power.
An integrated model
- Large countries attract more immigrants than small countries.
, - Immigration flows react within a year to a shortage on the labor market.
- The former colonial powers still attract more immigrants than countries without a former
colonial past.
-
Conclusion
Our results indicate that both the economic and the cultural approach can help us to determine the
structure of migration patterns. With regard to the economic factor, it seems clear that potential
immigrants do not systematically select countries with the highest GDP nor do they seem particularly
attracted to countries with a generous social security system.
Further research:
- Network position, active recruitment, or deliberate government policy might be possible
mechanisms here, but this is to be further investigated in future research.
- It remains to be investigated why exactly immigrants are being attracted to the former
colonial power. Partly, this might be an effect of language as our analysis demonstrates.
Government policy, too, might make a difference, granting a favored entry procedure to
inhabitants of the former colonies.
Clear and well-defined pull factors are at work. Immigrants do not settle randomly, or in the “easiest”
country. They are clearly attracted by shortages in the labor market, and by historical ties to a host
country.
1.2 Chapter 1: New migrations, new theories & Chapter 2 Contemporary theories
of international migration. In "Worlds in motion" Oxford: Clarendon Press (58
pages)
5 main theories:
1. Neo-classical economics theory
Main assumptions:
People are rational
Individuals move to where they will get the most gain
This is an investment in human capital (training, education, skills one possess)
Macro-level: push-pull approach
Main explanatory variables:
Income/wage differential
Unemployment differential
Some recent studies apply a newer version of this theory include a broader range of push-
and pull factors (e.g. weather, nature)
Micro-level: cost-benefit analysis
Main explanatory variables:
Expected income (differential)
Likelihood of employment
2. New economics theory
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