Dit is een samenvatting van de belangrijkste begrippen van English Grammar 3. Het studeren ervan zal je goed helpen bij het oplossen van de oefeningen die je op het examen zal krijgen.
• Sentence: words that are put together according to the rules of syntax
• Constituent: a group of words that functions as one whole
- A phrase: a group of words organized around its head, the word that
dominates the group and gives it its name
- A clause: a group of words that could be a sentence on its own right
• Parts of speech:
- Nouns
- Adjectives
- Adverbs
- Verbs
- Pronouns
- Prepositions
- Determiners
- Conjunctions (coordinators and subordinators)
- Interjections
• Complements and modifiers
- Modifiers are optional elements
- Complements are required elements
Basic sentence rule
• The basic sentence rule of English is: S → NP + VP = every sentence minimally
consists of a NP followed by a VP
Basics of phrase markers
• Tree diagrams
- = phrase markers
- Trees are hierarchical
- Trees consist of nodes
- A node dominates the ones below it
- Nodes are related to each other (mother, daughter, sister)
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, Sentence and clause
Types of sentences
• Simple sentence : sentence consisting of one clause
• Compound sentence : sentence consisting of coordinated clauses/clauses at the
same structural level (with coordinating conjunctions like ‘and’, but’, …)
• Complex sentence: sentence consisting of subordinated clauses/clauses at
hierarchically relative to .
the terms ‘subordinate’ and
how clauses are arranged
different structural levels (with subordinating/superordinating conjunctions like
‘superordinate’ describe
‘because’, ‘if’, ‘after’, …)
• Different types of clauses:
- Subordinate clause
each other
o Example: We can buy ice cream if I find my wallet.
- Superordinate clause
o Example: I like John because he cares about you as a person.
- Main clause: the top superordinate clause
- Matrix clause: a clause that immediately dominates a sub-clause
.
o Example: He said that he liked me.
I consider it to be effective.
General rules generating clauses
Coordination rule
• Coordination rule = X → X1 (Coord) X2 if X1 = X2
= any element can be rewritten as 2 coordinating elements if they .
. are of the same type
• The coordination may be syndetic or asyndetic
- Syndetic: with an explicit coordinator (example: and)
- Asyndetic: without an explicit coordinator (example: ,)
Subordination rules
• A subordinate clause always fills a phrasal slot → = the result of rewriting a phrase as
. a clause
- Rewrite rule for a nominal clause: NP → S
- Rewrite rule for a modifier clause: AdjP → S
- Rewrite rule for an adverbial clause: AdvP → S
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, Phrasal complementation (of verbs)
Subcategorisation of verbs (9)
• Intransitive verbs
- Require no complements
- Self-contained verbs → verbs which don’t need complements in order to be
meaningful (example: ‘he drinks’ has the connotation that he is an alcoholic
and therefore can’t be used like this in a different meaning)
- Of course, self-contained verbs may collocate with optional complements
(example: She can drink whenever she wants.)
- Existential construction: if the subject of ‘to be’ is indefinite, it will be
announced by ‘there’ or ‘it’
o Example: There is a noise.
o In this case ‘there’ is a dummy-element → it does not have a real
meaning and it doesn’t refer to anything, it just fills in the (nominal) slot
of subject
o In this case, ‘to be’ is not a copula
o If ‘there’ or ‘it’ does refer to something, then ‘to be’ is a copula
- ! Some verbs can be used intransitively and transitively
• Copulas
- Link a subject with a subject complement
o Subject complement = AdjP, NP, PrepP, AdvP
- Do not determine the kind of complementation → no constraints on
complements
- Primary copula: ‘to be’
- Secondary copulas:
o Inchoative verbs:
▪ Shows a process of beginning or becoming
▪ Example: The milk went bad.
o Verbs of the senses
▪ Involuntary perception → copula (example: The fish looks bad.)
▪ Voluntary perception → not a copula (example: The fish sees
badly.)
o Miscellaneous group
▪ Transfer an impression of something
▪ Example: She seems very helpful.
• Monotransitive verbs
- Require one obligatory complement: direct object in the form of an NP
- A transitive verb = passivizable → test to see if a verb is transitive or
intransitive (the DO becomes the subject in the passive sentence)
- The DO (= syntactic/grammatical function) expresses the patient (= semantic
role) of the action
o Affected participant: affected by the action
▪ Example: She drove his car.
o Effected participant: come into being as a result of the action
▪ Example: She painted a face.
- ! Pseudotransitive verbs
o Some NPs look like a direct object, but they cannot become the
subject in the passive sentence
o Example: He died a cruel dead. → A cruel death was died by him. (?)
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