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Europe
1000-750 BCE
The Mediterranean World
In the context of the power struggle in the Middle East, alongside well-documented realms like Assyria,
Egypt, and the Eastern Mediterranean kingdoms, there were enigmatic players who significantly impacted
the region. In the north, encompassing the Caucasus and the expanse between the Black Sea and Mongolia,
nomadic groups like the Cimmerians and the more aggressive Scythians held sway. The Cimmerians, initially
appearing in Assyrian records in the 8th century BCE, engaged in a combination of cattle herding and
farming. Their interactions with the regions around them brought knowledge that enhanced horse riding and
cavalry tactics. These migratory movements, although smaller in numbers compared to the settled societies
of Egypt and Mesopotamia, had significant implications. The emergence of the Cimmerians spurred
engagements with neighboring polities, notably the Mannean kingdom and the Urartu kingdom. The latter,
formed by the union of various tribes in response to Assyrian expansion, held control over territory between
the Black Sea and Lake Urmia. It was distinguished by monumental walled cities, strategically positioned
fortresses, advanced irrigation methods, and subterranean canals.
Meanwhile, the Greek world was emerging from the Dark Ages, experiencing population growth around
the Aegean Sea. This marked the beginning of a major resurgence. Dorian settlers transformed cities such as
Corinth and Sparta into thriving urban centers with populations reaching up to 10,000. Olive groves were
cultivated in the hills, fueling the olive oil trade. Greek trading posts emerged in regions like modern-day
Syria and Cyprus, leading to interactions with Phoenician culture that would influence the Greek alphabet
and artistic motifs.
The city-state of Sparta gained dominance in the competition for land in the Greek Peninsula, expanding its
territory by annexing most of the southern Peloponnese by the end of the 8th century BCE. In contrast,
Rome's foundation was marked by violence and fratricide, but its geographical location, encompassed by
rivers, hills, and marshes, offered natural protection from the Etruscans to the north and Greek colonies to
the south.
Recovering from the Bronze Age Collapse, the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions experienced
economic rejuvenation, leading to the establishment of new cities and revived trade routes. The Assyrian and
Egyptian empires, employing standing armies and chariots, aimed to exert their military influence over key
areas, including Mesopotamia, the Nile, and the Levantine trade routes. Amid efforts to maintain peace
through treaties and athletic competitions, disorder between states led to the proliferation of walls and myths
reinforcing concepts of divine blessing and chosenness. While trade flourished in centers like the Phoenician
city-state of Tyre, rulers sought to control commerce through monopolies, military supremacy, and tributary
policies.
Mediterranean Mayhem
In the Mediterranean region, the Scythians emerged as enigmatic challengers on the fringes of Persia. They
penetrated into the Middle East in the seventh century, sacking Nineveh and posing a threat to Egypt.
The Scythians were known for their fierce nature and nomadic lifestyle, riding stocky horses and
accumulating wealth from trades like pastoralism, agriculture, gold mining, and slave trading. However, their
steppe homeland limited their wealth accumulation compared to Persia. The Greek city-states thrived
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amidst the shadow of the Scythians and Persians, with forests transforming into olive farms and
vineyards. The struggles arose from limited arable land, known as stenochoria, leading to migrations
and trade pressures.
Athens emerged as a powerful trade hub under Solon's leadership, leveraging its favorable geographical
location. Corinth and Sparta vied for dominance, with Corinth excelling in maritime trade and industry,
while Sparta stood out as a land power. An alliance between Corinth and Sparta was formed in 525 BCE.
Athens gradually surpassed Corinth, becoming a significant maritime power in the region. Phoenicians
and Greeks competed intensely for dominance in the Mediterranean. Greek traders seized control from
Phoenicians, even allying with the Assyrians against them. As the Persians took control of the Levant,
Greeks capitalized on the power vacuum and emerged as the dominant traders in the Eastern
Mediterranean.
The flourishing Greek civilization was marked by advancements in art and philosophy in the sixth century.
Etruria embraced Greek influences, and Etruscans, Romans, and Greeks vied for colonies and trade.
Rome, although initially a modest city, underwent a transformative phase. Through conquest, diplomacy,
and military assimilation, Rome's power grew. By the end of the sixth century, Rome had emerged as one of
the largest cities, with its population increasing to around 30,000. Infrastructure improved, with the
construction of the first apartment blocks and a sophisticated sewerage system.
Despite the growth of individual city-states, the dominant powers in the Mediterranean were still the great
Middle Eastern empires like the Assyrians and Persians. The region remained a competitive arena driven by
territorial struggles, commercial interests, and the ambitions of emerging leaders. While Greek culture
flourished, particularly in Athens, the larger geopolitical landscape was shaped by these ongoing power
dynamics.
Alexander the Great
Alexander the Great, a name that resonates through the annals of history, was a young king from the Greek
state of Macedon who would go on to reshape the world through his ambition, military genius, and audacity.
His story is intertwined with the fate of the Persian Empire, led by King Darius III, and the clash of these
two titans would forever alter the course of civilizations.
The stage for Alexander's rise to power was set by his father, King Philip II of Macedon, who
expanded his realm's influence across the Greek Peninsula and pushed its borders towards the
Hellespont. Tensions between Macedon and Persia simmered for years, and in 341 BCE, Artaxerxes III,
Darius III's father, responded to an Athenian plea for support against Macedon. When Philip advanced
towards the Hellespont in 340, Artaxerxes marshaled his forces, appearing poised for victory.
However, in 338 BCE, Artaxerxes was assassinated, and Philip seized the opportunity to exploit the
turmoil within the Persian court. In the same year, he defeated the Athenians, allowing him to focus on
Persia. Establishing the League of Corinth in 337, Philip rallied the Greeks for a sacred war against the
Persians. In 336 BCE, his generals established a bridgehead across the Hellespont, sending shockwaves
through the region.
Amid this political upheaval, tragedy struck when Philip was assassinated. His young son, Alexander,
inherited a realm in chaos. But Alexander's swift suppression of rebellions and unrest showcased his training
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as a prince and his education by the philosopher Aristotle. His early command experience, battles at the age
of sixteen, and inheritance of a well-trained army set the stage for his epic journey.
In 334 BCE, Alexander embarked on his campaign against Persia, crossing the Hellespont and
engaging Greek mercenaries supporting Darius. The Battle of Granicus saw Alexander's victory,
securing Asia Minor city by city. Progressing through the Levant, Egypt, and Mesopotamia, Alexander
confronted Darius himself at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. The Macedonian forces prevailed,
opening the heartlands of the Persian Empire to his conquest.
Scholars still debate the factors that led to Alexander's success. The discovery of immense gold reserves in
Persian treasuries contradicts the notion of a resource-depleted empire. Darius' errors, including allowing
Macedonian footholds and relying on mercenaries, played into Alexander's hands. Yet, Alexander's brilliance
as a commander and his ability to inspire his troops cannot be denied. He projected an image of himself as a
demigod, meticulously using propaganda to present his victories as personal triumphs.
Nonetheless, Alexander's military feats contrasted with his political leadership. His empire's stability was
threatened by his failure to consolidate conquests, replace Persian administration, or gain the loyalty of
subjugated peoples. Upon his death in Babylon in 323 BCE, aged only thirty-two, his empire began to
unravel. He had succumbed to Persian luxury, alienated his Macedonian troops, and grew tyrannical. The
lack of a clear successor marked the beginning of a tumultuous period that illustrated the challenges of
maintaining vast empires.
Alexander the Great's legacy is one of both triumph and downfall. His audacious campaigns transformed the
world's map, but his empire's fragmentation underscored the complexities of governing far-reaching realms.
His name lives on as a symbol of boundless ambition, strategic brilliance, and the precarious nature of
power on the world stage.
The Greek March Into Disaster
In the backdrop of the Hellenic world, the allure of Persian gold drove diplomats to precarious decisions.
One such instance occurred when Timagoras returned with a Persian bed, causing public outrage in Athens
around this time. This highlights the clash between Persian luxury and the frugal Greek lifestyle. Nativist
sentiments further strained unity, even within Athens, as immigrants often faced expulsion and hostility.
The Peloponnesian War, meticulously documented by historian Thucydides in the years 431–404 BCE,
stands as a poignant tragedy of Greek history. The conflict between Athens and Sparta underscored the
absence of cohesive Hellenic unity. Aristophanes' plays like "Lysistrata" (411 BCE) and "Peace" (421 BCE)
captured the desperation for resolution, while Euripides' "The Women of Troy" (415 BCE) protested the
internal atrocities Greeks inflicted. The aftermath of the war, however, failed to galvanize a united
response to the looming Macedonian threat.
Philosophical reflections on unity and power dynamics significantly influenced Greek perspectives. Plato's
emphasis on education, training, and harmonious cities contrasts with Aristotle's pragmatic approach to
assessing military capabilities. Herodotus (484–425 BCE) and Thucydides (460–400 BCE) dissected Persian
influence and the complex origins of conflicts, delving into the nuances of power dynamics.
Diplomacy emerged as a cornerstone of ancient Greece. Persuasive orators wielded influence, leagues
formed around hegemonic powers, and treaties were negotiated with fervor. The Delian League, centered on
