Summary Media Psychology Gayle Brewer 9780230279209
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Mediapsychologie en -sociologie
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Mediapsychologie En -sociologie
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Media Psychology
This document is a detailed summary of the book Media Psychology Gayle Brewer (9780230279209). I made this summary in regard to my home study from the LOI for the media psychology and sociology course.
The summary notes the most important aspects, with all terms and their meanings.
Defining ‘media’
Media will be defined as any method of communication, other than one to one interactions,
which is facilitated by some type of technology, such as printed newspapers through to new
podcasts. Bear in mind that what people mean by media can change over time and that in
some situations different academic disciplines may have more specific definitions.
The development of the psychology of media
Media psychology is an important tool by which we can monitor both the positive and
negative impact that the media can have on individuals, groups within society, and on
society as a whole.
The progression of media psychology research
In addition to the impact that the information presented via the media has on people, media
psychologists are also interested in the influence of the method of presentation used. ‘The
medium is the message’ suggesting that the way in which the message is communicated, for
example, by radio or by television can have a direct impact on the way in which the message
is interpreted by the recipient.
PART I - Persuasion and Influence
Chapter 1 - Media Violence
It could be argued that individuals that are likely to act aggressively (for whatever reasons)
repeat particular acts when “inspired” by the media, but the media is not responsible for the
aggression per se.
Media content
Violence = The overt expression of physical force.
→ 60% of tv programs contain violence.
→ What is recognized as violence can differ from person to person, but also cultural
differences appear.
The scientific evidence
A range of studies have been conducted investigating the subject, the current section
provides evidence in this area. Categorized in studies as experimental, cross-sectional
and longitudinal design.
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,Experimental evidence
Experimental studies allow the researchers to test cause-and-effect relationships while
controlling for a number of other influential variables. The outcomes:
● Exposure to violent media does increase the incidence of aggressive behavior,
although there is less evidence for an increase in criminal violence.
● Research does not always suggest that exposure to media violence is harmful.
● One of the most common criticisms of experimental research is that laboratory
measures of aggression provide little information about aggression in real life.
● It is important to note that the relationship between media exposure and behavior is
complex and the advent of television may impact on society in a number of ways
(such as increased materialism) which in turn could influence crime rates.
Cross-sectional evidence
Research adopting a cross-sectional (including correlational) design measures the extent
to which individuals are exposed to violent media and a form of aggression in the natural
environment. These studies can provide more realistic (or ecological valid) results.
● Cross-sectional surveys have consistently shown that exposure to violent television
and movies are related to aggression.
● Cross-sectional research has considered the relationship between media exposure
and aggression in a range of audiences in a number of cultures.
● In contrast to much of the research in this area, the study indicated that exposure to
violent television is negatively (and significantly) related to rates of violent crime. It
could be suggested therefore that watching television (including violent programs)
encourages a person to stay at home actually decreases opportunities to interact
with deviant peers or engage in criminal behavior in the wider community.
Longitudinal evidence
The longitudinal method in which participants are assessed at two (or more) time points
allows the researcher to both assess real-life aggression and establish a cause-and-effect
relationship.
● One research provided by Lefkowitz et cal. (1977) found that the preference for
violent media at age eight predicts aggression at age nineteen.
● Huesmann (1986) reported that early television preferences predict the number and
seriousness of convictions at age thirty.
● Johnson et al. (2002) found a higher number of aggressive acts, assaults, and
robberies among adults who watched a greater amount of television during
adolescence.
→ Researchers collecting longitudinal research have concluded that “If a child’s observation
of media violence promotes the learning of aggressive habits, it can have harmful lifelong
consequences”.
● Aggression during childhood does not predict if the individual will actively seek violent
media later on.
Evaluation, meta-analysis, and reports
Consistent results based on multiple studies that use a range of methodological approaches
provide the “big picture” and increase confidence in the researcher’s conclusions.
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,Meta-analyses statistically integrate a number of studies, allowing the researcher to reach a
more reliable conclusion and to establish an overall effect size. Importantly, these analyses
can also make comparisons between different methodological approaches or different types
of aggression.
→ Meta-analysis have concluded that exposure to violent media increases the level of
aggressive and antisocial behavior. → Also found by a number of government and
nongovernment agencies.
Important factors
A number of factors associated with the characteristics of the media violence or the
individual viewer may strengthen or weaken the impact of media violence. While there is
substantial evidence outlining the importance of some factors, others are the product of
public opinion rather than established theory of research evidence.
Consequences
Aggression is less likely to follow exposure to media violence when the victim's pain and
suffering are emphasized. Violent acts that are rewarded (or that do not have any discernible
consequences) are more frequently imitated than violence that is punished.
The importance of reward and punishment is well established by the scientific evidence,
particularly by Bandura and the Social Learning Theory.
Realism and context
According to Bandura (1965), people are more likely to attend to, recall, and imitate media
violence that they believe could exist in real life, although there is some evidence that
“cartoonish” violence has an impact similar to more realistic or graphic content.
“Justified” violence is more likely to promote aggressive responses than other violence. In
part, this may reflect the viewers’ willingness to identify with a character that is portrayed in a
positive way (e.g. as a hero) and to develop similar traits such as charisma or popularity with
the opposite sex.
Characteristics of the viewer
Some individuals may be more susceptible (gevoeliger) than others to these effects.
● Children may be more likely to display real-life aggression and feel fear or anxiety
than other viewers. In part, this reflects the fact that young children find it difficult to
distinguish between fantasy and reality, believing all incidences of media violence to
be realistic.
● In part, individual differences (e.g. personality) may help to explain the way in which
different people interpret and react to the same media content (aggressive vs
nonaggressive people).
Theories of media violence
A range of theories have been proposed that help the researcher to understand, explain, and
predict the relationship between media violence and aggression: Social Learning Theory,
Scripts Theory, Cultivation and fear & Desensitization.
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, Social Learning Theory
Social Learning Theory uses the principles of learning to explain the impact of media
violence. Aggression may be learned through both direct and indirect experience. Direct
learning depends on the consequences of an aggressive act.
The Social Learning Theory argues that observation of on-screen characters (and not just
real-life family members or peers) are influential and provide models to be imitated by the
viewer.
The theory provides an explanation for both short- and long-term media violence effects:
- Short-term effects occur when the viewer mimics the behavior displayed on screen
and the habitual behavior, which results from regular observation and imitation,
accounts for long-term effects.
Scripts Theory
Scripts Theory places a greater emphasis on the cognitive processes influenced by the
violent media. The theory states that people hold a wide range of cognitive scripts, which
guide their behavior. Existing scripts are stored in memory, but can continue to develop as
the person observes new behaviors and expands their range of experience.
In real life, a person selects a script that resembles their situation and assumes an
appropriate role within that script to guide their actions. In this way the development of
violent scripts can lead to real-life aggression.
Of course, the extent to which an individual’s future behavior is guided by the script depends
on a range of factors, including the similarity of their real-life situation to the media scenario
and script.
Specific triggers and cues may also be important. The similarity of both the aggressor and
the victim may be important.
Cultivation and fear
Cultivation Theory highlights the fear and anxiety associated with media violence rather
than real-life aggression. Specifically, media violence encourages the audience to believe
that the world is a mean, violent, and dangerous place. The greater the exposure to the
message, the more likely the individual is to accept it.
Mediated reality = the skewed perception (scheve perceptie) of the real world that
develops.
→ People exposed to violent content are more likely to overestimate the actual level of
crime, fear victimization, and mistrust others. → Both children and adults who watch a lot of
television are more fearful than light viewers.
Desensitization
Desensitization is a process that suggests that violence becomes less upsetting and
arousing over time. It removes the barriers that typically prevent a person from behaving
aggressively and reduces sympathy toward those that are victimized.
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