Summary of History of International Relations based on notes made in the lectures. The course is part of the Masters degree Internationale Betrekkingen en Diplomatie aan de UA.
Summary - History of International Relations
Academic year
Introduction
“Why is it useful for social scientists to study history?” → 4 reasons:
1. Historical legacies = past ways of doing things have an impact on doing things in the present
and the future → there might be a lesson drawn from history which makes the future more
predictable.
2. The politics of historical memories → Political memories are (1) propagated by memory
activists; 2) based on selection and exclusion; 3) depend on the efficiency of political
pedagogy; 4) show a high degree of ‘homogeneity’; 5) rely on symbols and rites that enhance
emotions of empathy and identification.
a. Memory is always selective and always includes an element of forgetting. Besides political
memory does not come about spontaneous: historical memories are made political relevant by
political acters. They choose to put emphasis on particular events and aspects of history. So, it
always involved political actors motivated by political projects.
3. The contingency of moral ideas and social arrangements = moral ideas and social
arrangements are not absolutely fixed or universal but instead arise from specific historical
circumstances. They are shaped by and dependent on the context in which they develop.
4. Lessons from history
History of International Relations (IR) is often seen as:
Presentist = it interprets past events through the lens of contemporary ideas.
Eurocentric = it prioritizes European perspectives/experiences often marginalizing or
oversimplifying the roles and contributions of non-European societies in shaping IR.
→ Cf. historical legacies, historical memory, and the contingency of present arrangements → we
should also look at non-European history because we do not want to draw premature conclusions: we
want to be as conscious as possible about the fact that the way how international politics is organized
today is contingent.
1
,China and East-Asia
China did not became a nation state until the end of the 19th century.
China consisted of imperial dynasties with pretence of being the ‘middle kingdom’
(zhongguo).
o There was not a sense of national identity at all within the Chinese environment →
multiple ethnicities, multiple spoken languages.
o A number of imperial dynasties that somehow claimed to be succeeding one and
another and who claimed to be the “middle kingdom.”
China was a civilizational zone sharing in a set of ritual practices.
o A shared way of thinking about political authority: the emperors of dynasties ruled
with the mandate of heave – they were the “sons of heaven.” To rule with a mandate
of heaven was to rule with alleged blessing.
It was a mandate not a right which smoothened the transition from one
imperial dynasty to another when defeated.
The Chinese international system is not encompassing; it is changing and it is not unquestionably
Confucian.
The Chinese international system was an overland system = the system that organized
relationships between China and the Mongol-tribes (the North and West of China).
o Confucian lines played a lesser role in the overland system.
The Chinese international system could be seen as a tribute system = the system that
organized relationships between China and their Southern and Eastern neighbours.
o Organized to a very large extent along Confucian lines.
THE WARRING STATES PERIOD - 475 – 251 BCE
Main characteristics:
Intense competition including military competition: at the end of the Zhou-dynasty you end
up with various regional leaders who assert their independence which will lead to multiple
independent states that get into extremely fierce military competition with each other.
Qin appear to achieve dominance; other polities must respond.
What did you see happening?
Military commanders would start writing military manuals:
E.g. Sunzi who authored the book “The Art of War” in which he explains how a state
should organize itself military. He underlines the importance of intelligence, subterfuge, and
dissimulation.
A period of intense and often violent political-military competition but also a period in which China
flourished:
Political competition spurred economic development.
Political competition spurred intellectual creativity.
→ The development of multiple philosophical schools:
1. Kongzi = Confucianism: proper conduct within hierarchical, persons relations.
a. Being a morally virtuous person.
b. Society = a set of hierarchical relationships among people . People should behave in
accordance with the position that they have within that relationship.
i. The inferior should be obedient; but the ruler has an obligation to take care of
the inferior party (so the ruler cannot rule arbitrarily).
c. A virtuous ruler performs seasonal rituals.
2. Daoism: emphasis on spirituality.
a. Being spiritual entuned with nature.
2
, 3. Fajia = legalism: ruthless pursuit of state interests – role of law therein but ruler above law
certainly in foreign affairs.
a. A stable social order by developing a strong legal framework: harsh laws; harsh
punishment.
b. The ruler is above the law.
c. Be as ruthless as necessary in foreign affairs because the purpose is to predominate.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHINESE STATE
‘China’ (the Qin dynasty) was ruled over by a succession of imperial dynasties.
o This indicates that in Chinese history there was plenty of struggle and competition →
Apparently there was dissatisfaction with imperial rule. People were eager for political power
and tried to overthrow the existing rulers.
Not every dynasty was of Chinese origin.
Yet also myriad elements of continuity:
o In cultural terms: form a very early-stage Confucianism will be adopted as an official
state philosophy – except for the Yuan-dynasty (the Mongol dynasty).
o In terms of political organization: all these dynasties will claim the mandate of
heaven.
HAN DYNASTY – 206 BCE until 220 CE = the 2nd imperial dynasty (1st = Qin dynasty).
Establishment of professional administration → by taxing key commodities (e.g. salt).
Adoption of Confucianism as a state philosophy → the emperor sits on top and is embodying
virtue through ritual performances.
o The emperor does not have the competence to take decisions by himself; it is always
in consultation with advisers → So no autocratic, but hierarchical rule.
Organization of society and economy: road, canals, coins.
o An important innovation because coins facilitate trade.
They will ultimately monopolize the production of salt and liquor.
o The establishment of the Silk Road(s) = a dense network of trade roads for luxury
goods → a form of proto globalization.
Goods travel widely but people mostly do not → But when people and goods
travel, ideas will travel too – e.g. Buddhism will travel from India to China.
The Han dynasty did not develop the Silk Road(s) → The Silk Road(s)
basically established themselves and the Han-dynasty valued them and
managed them.
Military engagement with Xiongu Federation = the federation of nomadic tribes.
o Their attacks are their main worry.
On the other hand, there is very little interstate competition that they need to
be concerned of.
TANG DYNASTY – 618-907 CE
Entrance examinations (meritocracy) → Civil servant having to familiarize themselves with
the Confucianism classic.
China spreads it cultural influence → major (technological) innovations.
o Becomes extremely prominent and rich → achieves an aura of cultural prominence:
neighbouring countries start adopting Chinese cultural artefacts.
But China does not yet feel that it is cultural self-sufficient; self-absorbed.
China shows itself open to foreign influences:
o E.g. Xuanzang = a Buddhist monk → will open a Buddhist library.
3
, SONG DYNASTY – 960 – 1279
Era of major technological achievement → e.g. gunpowder.
o An extremely cosmopolitan urban culture.
o Thrived economically, socially, culturally but faced serious geopolitical challenges.
Era of great military challenges especially from nomadic polities → 2 attacks:
1. The Jurchen (Mongols) managed to defeat the Song dynasty and moved the
capital from the North to the South.
2. Attack under the command of Kublai Khan who managed to defeat the Song
dynasty properly and who managed to establish the Yuan dynasty.
YUAN DYNASTY – 1271 – 1368
Of Mongolic origin under the command of Kublai Khan – cf. chapter Mongol Empire.
MING DYNASTY – 1368 – 1644
Porcelain vases and luxurious gardens
‘Great wall of China’ → the Ming dynasty was known for its isolationism.
o Nomadic polities continued to represent one of the great geopolitical challenges →
“Let us put up all these walls to keep out the nomads.”
Zheng He voyages → Set sail to the Indian Ocean in order to establish trade- and political
relations.
o “Brings a giraffe to Beijing” → typically when there were diplomatic contacts gifts
would be exchanged. This shows that there was a sort of global interaction already at
that time although not yet a global network.
o Ends abruptly → an outcome of a struggle between two factions within the Ming
government: the Eunuch and Confucian scholars.
Trade had a bad reputation among Confucianists: “making money without putting in
real effort.”
o Subject of historiographical controversy:
E. Ringmar: Journey of exploration and trade
G. Wade: Colonialism
QING DYNASTY – 1644 – 1912
Established by a Manchu tribe → a barbarian group who defeated the Ming in 1644.
Hybridization = a combination of Chinese and Manchu practices + receptive to (Tibetan)
Buddhism → They needed to become Confucianists (rule with the mandate of heaven) in
order to reduce internal opposition but they had the intelligence of adding foreign elements of
this Confucianism in order to fend of the nomadic opponents.
Two important and successful rulers: Kongxi and Qianlong
o Incorporation of Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang into China
o Wars in Vietnam and Burma (Myanmar), defensive war against Russia (Treaty of
Nerchinsk in 1689).
In treaties with the Vietnamese the hierarchical relationship will be
emphasized.
In treaties with the Russians a certain degree of equality is acknowledged.
Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 → will be translated into (1) Latin, (2)
Russian and (3) Manchu – not into Chinese.
Limitations on foreign trade → reduced to one single port.
4
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