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Critical Thinking in Political Sciences - Voc lijst
Vocabulaire Lijst - CTIPS
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CTIPS• Critical Thinking
Is originated from Egypt and from Herodotus period. He travelled around and realized that each place
had its own truth. Critical thinking is the fact to think critically. It is how we make a judgement, based on
reason, evidence and logic. Making reasoned judgments that are logical and well-thought out. It is a way
of thinking in which you don't simply accept all arguments and conclusions you are exposed to but
rather have an attitude involving questioning such arguments and conclusions. It requires wanting to
see what evidence is involved to support a particular argument or conclusion.
Critical thinking is crucial and central for creative activity, creating space where new things can emerge.
Critical thinking is oriented towards good judgement, western traditional of critical thinking
Example: Monotheism is a source of critical thinking
- Because monotheistic tradition presupposes the question of truth, says if something is
true it has to be true everywhere
- its strong critical tradition, constantly asking, how can we know god? How can we know
truth? etc.
• Analysis
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic into smaller parts in order to gain a better
understanding of it.
Synonym for critical thinking
You identify and interpret elements according to your particular interest in the subject.
The concept has also been ascribed to Descartes in his ‘’Discourse on the Method’’ (a work on how to
seek truth in sciences, in this piece he says “cogito ergo sum, je pense donc je suis, i think thus I am”).
• Critique
It is rooted from the Greek word Kritikos; which means judgement, but it does not refer to its negative
connotation. The fundamental aim of critique is to make good judgements. Critique is everywhere around
us. Critique is rooted in truthfulness: ‘’is something true or not?’’
Although seen as a way of discrediting others, it nowadays argues more for the status quo
Critique does not have to be negative, it is all around us, in our culture.
Philosophy: Marx on Feuerbach and calculability, Nietzsche on substance ontology, …
• Epistemology
Epistemology is the study of knowledge.
The types of epistemology are almost infinite: coherentism, ...
How can we know if God exists?; What makes justified beliefs justified?
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,• Ontology
Ontology is the study of being. : Does God exist?
Ontological questions are important especially for those who believe in foundationalism.
Ontology consists of 3 sub-fields:
Realism – reality is reality and things those, that you see.
Empiricism – you cannot be sure what the things are until you observe it.
Constructivism – you need to give a name to things in order them to exist.
Example: Men are from Mars and Women are from Venus - fundamental differences between men and
women that are features of their very existence. There are essential differences of ‘being’ that provide
the foundations upon which social life is built.
• Foundationalist (realist) ontology
Foundationalism concerns philosophical theories of knowledge resting upon justified belief.
Aristotle made foundationalism his own clear choice, positing basic beliefs underpinning others.
Descartes discovered a foundation in the fact of his own existence and in the "clear and distinct" ideas
of reason, whereas Locke found a foundation in experience.
Every justified belief is justified by basic beliefs. Foundationalists think that knowledge is like a building:
I. At the bottom there are functionalist - basic beliefs
II. Built on them, these beliefs can directly justify others
III. Further beliefs that are built on them
e.g. this is right because this is right; physics - we are building laws that are built on other laws.
In order to arrive at the underlying reality, we have to start with the most fundamental
questions and then work up from there to more specific questions. Those most fundamental questions
are usually ontological questions.
• Process ontology
Refers to a universal model of the structure of the world as an ordered wholeness.
Such ontologies are fundamental ontologies, in contrast to the so-called applied ontologies.
Fundamental ontologies do not claim to be accessible to any empirical proof in itself, but to be a
structural design pattern, out of which empirical phenomena can be explained and put together
consistently.
• Relational (anti-ontological) ontology
Relational ontology is the philosophical position that what distinguishes subject from subject, subject
from object, or object from object is mutual relation rather than substance.
acknowledges a basic condition: We are related to other people, to the world around us, to nature, our
society and political systems, to our friends, our family and ourselves.
The main contention of a relational ontology is that the relations between entities are ontologically
more fundamental than the entities themselves. One could say: the relations are primary to what they
are relating to.
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, • Substance ontology
An ontological theory about objecthood positing that a substance is distinct from its properties. A thing-
in-itself is a property-bearer that must be distinguished from the properties it bears.
Nietzsche rejects the notion of "substance", and in the same movement the concept of subject - seeing
both concepts as holdovers from Platonic idealism. His theory on the will to power suggests that in
every individual thing there is a built-in capacity for initiating and continuing change and motion.
His critique of substance relies in part on the claim that the origin of the idea lies in a wrong notion of
the self as a “doer”, which is an independent source of change.
Monistic view: one substance, Dualism: world composed out of 2 fundamental substances, Pluralist
philosophies: Plato & Aristotle.
• Teleology
The process of explaining something through its function or purpose.
Explain most aspects of the world by saying objects exist to serve their purpose
Example: Apple trees exist to provide food for people.
Contrary to Teleology is Nietzsche’s, and later Foucault’s, idea of genealogy.
Nietzsche developed this concept through discussing human morality. Instead of seeing the human
morals as a clear-cut teleological process, which have always seen morals as “good”. Nietzsche argued
how the development of morality was an unpredictable conflict that ended with a final result no one
could have had predicted, making it impossible to argue that it is normatively good or bad.
• Immanent teleology
The process of explaining something through its function or purpose.
Immanent teleology is what we call Aristotle’s reconstruction of Plato’s teleology
Aristotle’s emphasis on teleology implies that there is a reason for everything. Just as Aristotle sees
purpose in anatomical and biological systems, he sees human life as organized and directed toward a
final end as well. Because we are essentially rational, Aristotle argues that rationality is our final cause
and that our highest aim is to fulfill our rationality.
Plato argues that particular instances of, say, beauty exist only because they participate in the universal
Form of Beauty. On the contrary, Aristotle argues that universal concepts of beauty derive from the
instances of beauty in this world.
He believes that all causes must themselves be caused and all motion must be caused by something that
is already in motion. if all causes have antecedent causes, there is no first because that causes motion
and change to exist in the first place, Aristotle answers that there must be a first cause, an unmoved
mover, God.
The idea that there is a purpose in history, that the end of history is already present at the beginning.
this means that in Hegel way of thinking he does not follow a cause and effect analysis since the effect
according to him is already present in the cause. This concept is already present in the ideal of dialectics.
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