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Samenvatting - Leadership: mobilizing people (E_MFDM_LMP)
Samenvatting van alle verplichten artikelen van het vak Leadership: mobilizing people.
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A review and future agenda for behavioral research on leader– follower interactions at differenttemporal scopes - Clara Sofie Hemshorn de Sanchez, Fabiola H. Gerpott, Nale Lehmann-
Willenbrock
Introduction:
Leadership can be defined as a formal or informal, contextually rooted, and goal-influencing process
that occurs between leaders and followers.
Perceptions of leader behavior obtained via self-reports ostensibly provide a valuable inward-directed
perspective on an individual and their understanding of others. Because people's perceptions are often
biased, such perceptions do not necessarily reflect what actually occurred in a particular interaction.
Focusing on actual leader and/or follower behavior implies that insights regarding the role of time can
be more easily derived than from questionnaire-based studies, as behaviors can be sampled at a much
higher rate.
Key contributions:
● We provide an integrative overview of the underlying questions addressed in previous
behavior-based research on leader–follower interactions by aggregating existing studies
according to their underlying conceptual models, thereby also categorizing extant studies
based on their temporal scopes into nano-, micro-, meso-, macro-, and giga-time.
● We provide scholars with a systematic overview of the types of behaviors that have been
studied using different methodological approaches (i.e., observation, training/manipulation,
and critical incidents) in lab or field settings.
Leader-follower interactions at different temporal scopes
Understanding leadership as a temporal process or a sequence of discrete behaviors that evolves
through interactions between leaders and followers over time requires reflecting on what is meant by
the terms “behavior” and the “temporal scope” at which the behaviors of interest unfold.
What is meant by “behavior”?
● Henriques and Michalski illustrate the complexity of this construct through categorizing it at
four levels:
○ matter (e.g., atoms),
○ life (e.g., bacteria and plants),
○ mind (e.g., animal behavior),
○ culture (e.g., people's socio-linguistic behavior).
● Behavioral complexity refers to “the shared, socially constructed reality of human persons,
and their systems of verbal communication and propositional meaning making”.
● We define the term behavior at the cultural level as any overt conduct on the part of a person
that is observable and functionally relevant in the present moment.
What is meant by “temporal scope”?
, ● McClean et al. developed theory specifying the degree and pattern by which leader behavior
dynamically changes over time. Their research describes the steepness of trajectories or the
patterns of cyclicality in leader behavior.
● In the long term, however, an excessive focus on creating solutions could lead to a lack of
problem-orientation, which could result in teams overlooking important shortcomings in the
project work.
● Thus, while a behavior may have positive results at a small temporal scope, it may result in
problematic patterns at higher temporal levels.
● While conceptual work on leadership and followership has often remained silent regarding the
timeframes that should be considered when observing a phenomenon of interest, scholars
conducting empirical studies must decide on the temporal scope at which they will collect
their data on leader– follower interactions.
● To accurately describe the temporal scopes of studies, we rely on the time-theoretical levels
proposed by Klonek et al. (2019): nano-time (leader–follower interactions or behaviors that
evolve within microseconds or frames per second), micro-time (leader– follower interactions
or behaviors that evolve over the course of seconds, minutes, or an hour), macro-time (leader–
follower interactions or behaviors that evolve over multiple days or weeks), and giga-time
(leader–follower interactions or behaviors that evolve over several months/years).
Methodology of the review
● We conducted a multi-step systematic literature review.
● For all steps, we applied the following formal inclusion criteria:
a) published in English;
b) peer-reviewed, empirical journal articles, or articles in preparation for submission;
c) included participants who were at least 18 years old;
d) studies conducted in lab or field settings;
e) positioned within the disciplines of organizational behavior, psychology,
communication, management, economics, anthropology, or sociology.
● To identify studies that observed, manipulated, or trained actual leadership and/or
followership behaviors, we defined two inclusion criteria:
1. a study had to consider both leader and follower roles.
2. studies needed to capture, manipulate, or train real (actual) behavior of leaders and/or
followers.
● We followed five steps to identify studies that met the two inclusion criteria. During each
step, we scanned the titles and abstracts of identified articles to verify whether they met the
inclusion criteria.
Review findings
Underlying conceptual models of extant behavior-based research
● Our classification reveals that scholars preferably aim to answer the question of how specific
leader behaviors relate to a wide range of outcomes, with the most prevalent being follower
outcomes, leadership ascriptions (e.g., emergent leadership, leader prototypicality, leadership
rank, and status), and follower behavior (e.g., verbal, nonverbal, gaze patterns, and
movements).
, ● A related prevalent research area concerns the question whether training specific leader
behaviors can positively influence a wide range of outcomes, with the most prevalent
outcomes being perceptions of leader behaviors and leadership style and leader or follower
outcomes.
● The two predominant research foci (i.e., using leader behavior as a predictor or training leader
behavior as an independent variable) reflect a strong focus on the leader as the main driver of
outcomes.
● The two predominant research foci (i.e., using leader behavior as a predictor or training leader
behavior as an independent variable) and their corresponding preferred temporal scope (i.e.,
micro- and gigatime) also reflect the overall preference for temporal scopes.
Study context, methodological approaches, and behavioral types
● Laboratory study context
○ Scholars who seek to study actual behavior preferably do so in laboratory contexts.
○ Verbal behavior is the dominated investigated behavioral modality. The second
preferred behavioral type is text-based behavior.
○ Although leadership research on nonverbal behavior is still in its infancy, to date,
laboratory studies indicate a greater variety of nonverbal behavioral types than field
studies, with eye-gazing studies being particularly popular.
● Field study context
○ Verbal behavior constituted the predominantly studied type of behavior in field
studies.
○ The second most frequently investigated behavioral type was unspecified nonverbal
behavior.
● To conclude, our joint analysis of study context, methodological approaches, and behavioral
types in extant research indicates a clear preference for laboratory studies or online
experiments over field studies to establish the causal influence of manipulated behavior.
Future research directions
**missing**
Developing theories and collecting data that connect actual and perceived leader and follower
behavior
● Shortcomings
● Future avenues
Data analysis over time and over more than one temporal level
● Shortcomings
● Future avenues
Analyzing interdependent behavioral patterns between leaders and followers
● Shortcomings
● Future avenues
, Unconventional methods for data collection
● Shortcomings
● Future avenues
Developing theories and analyzing multimodal interaction patterns
● Shortcomings
● Future avenues
Naturalistic versus laboratory studies
● Shortcomings
● Future avenues
Conclusion
● First, we provided an integrative overview of the underlying questions that have been
addressed in previous behavior-based leadership research by extracting the examined
conceptual models and thereby also categorizing extant studies according to their temporal
scopes.
● We conclude that future research could benefit from developing theories and collecting data
that link perceptions of leader and/or follower behavior with actual leader and/or follower
behavior, performing data analyses over time and over more than one temporal level, and
analyzing interdependent behavioral patterns between leaders and followers.
● We found that both lab and field research largely focused on verbal behavior, with lab
research mostly manipulating this behavioral type and field research being prone to
observations.
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