Social Research Methodology Summary
Bryman’s social research methods (6th edi4on)
,Table of Contents
SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY SUMMARY .............................................................................................. 1
BRYMAN’S SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS (6TH EDITION) ...................................................................................................1
WEEK 1 + 2 .................................................................................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER 1: THE NATURE AND PROCESS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH ...........................................................................................5
1.2 Social research: what is it and why do it?................................................................................................5
1.3 The context of social research methods ..................................................................................................5
1.4 The main elements of social research .....................................................................................................6
CHAPTER 4: (74-78) FORMULATING SUITABLE RESEARCH QUESTIONS ................................................................................8
CHAPTER 2: SOCIAL RESEARCH STRATEGIES; QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH AND QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ..........................................9
2.2 Theories and research .............................................................................................................................9
2.3 Epistemological quesDons .....................................................................................................................11
2.4 Ontological consideraDons ....................................................................................................................13
2.5 Research strategy: quanDtaDve and qualitaDve research .....................................................................15
2.6 Further values on how we conduct social research ...............................................................................15
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................................................................17
3.1 IntroducDon ...........................................................................................................................................17
3.2 Quality criteria in social research ..........................................................................................................17
3.3 Experimental design ..............................................................................................................................19
3.4 Cross-secDonal design ...........................................................................................................................22
3.5 Longitudinal designs ..............................................................................................................................23
3.6 Case study design ..................................................................................................................................24
3.7 ComparaDve design ...............................................................................................................................26
3.8 bringing research strategy and research design together .....................................................................27
CHAPTER 12: STRUCTURED OBSERVATION (ONLY 12.4) ................................................................................................28
12.4 Field sDmulaDon ..................................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER 6: ETHICS AND POLITICS IN SOCIAL RESEARCH .................................................................................................28
6.3 Thinking about ethics in social research ................................................................................................28
6.4 Ethical principles for conducDng social research ...................................................................................29
6.5 the difficulDes of ethical decision-making .............................................................................................32
6.6 PoliDcs in social research .......................................................................................................................33
CHAPTER 5 (ONLY 5.6)...........................................................................................................................................36
5.6 Avoiding plagiarism ...............................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER 13: CONTENT ANALYSIS .............................................................................................................................36
13.1 IntroducDon .........................................................................................................................................36
13.2 What is content analysis? ....................................................................................................................36
13.3 ConducDng content analysis ................................................................................................................37
13.4 Content analysis of parDcular types of data ........................................................................................41
13.5 EvaluaDng content analysis .................................................................................................................42
CHAPTER 14 (ONLY 14.5).......................................................................................................................................43
14.5 Big data ...............................................................................................................................................43
WEEK 3 + 4 .................................................................................................................................................. 44
CHAPTER 7: THE NATURE OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH ..................................................................................................44
7.2 What is quanDtaDve research ...............................................................................................................44
7.3 The main pre-occupaDons of quanDtaDve researchers .........................................................................44
7.4 The main steps in qualitaDve research ..................................................................................................46
7.5 Concepts and their measurements ........................................................................................................47
7.6 Reliability and validity of measures .......................................................................................................49
7.8 From theory to pracDce .........................................................................................................................51
CHAPTER 8: SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .......................................................................................................53
, 8.1 IntroducDon ...........................................................................................................................................53
8.2 What is sampling ...................................................................................................................................53
8.4 Probability sampling ..............................................................................................................................55
8.5 types of non-probability sampling .........................................................................................................57
8.6 Sampling size .........................................................................................................................................58
8.7 sampling issues in online surveys ..........................................................................................................59
8.8 limits to generalizaDon ..........................................................................................................................60
8.9 Error in survey research and the role of sampling .................................................................................60
CHAPTER 9: STRUCTURED INTERVIEWING ...................................................................................................................61
9.2 structured interview ..............................................................................................................................61
9.3 interview contexts .................................................................................................................................62
9.4 Preparing to conduct a structured interview .........................................................................................63
9.5 conducDng a structured interview .........................................................................................................65
9.6 ending a structured interview................................................................................................................66
9.7 problems with structured interviewing .................................................................................................66
CHAPTER 10: SELF-COMPLETION QUESTIONNAIRES ......................................................................................................67
10.2 Different forms of self-compleDon quesDonnaires ..............................................................................67
10.3 comparing self-compleDon quesDonnaires with structured interviews ...............................................67
10.4 Designing a self-compleDon quesDonnaire .........................................................................................69
10.5 Email and online surveys .....................................................................................................................70
10.6 mixed modes of administering surveys ...............................................................................................71
10.7 choosing which mode to use to administer your survey ......................................................................71
10.8 Diaries as a form of self-compleDon quesDonnaire .............................................................................74
10.9 experience and event sampling ...........................................................................................................74
CHAPTER 11: ASKING QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................................75
11.2 QuesDon formats: open- or closed-ended ...........................................................................................75
11.3 types of quesDons ................................................................................................................................76
11.4 Vigne\e quesDons ...............................................................................................................................77
11.5 rules for designing quesDons ...............................................................................................................78
11.6 piloDng and pre-tesDng quesDons .......................................................................................................81
11.7 Using exisDng quesDons ......................................................................................................................81
CHAPTER 14: USING EXISTING DATA ..........................................................................................................................82
14.2 Secondary analysis of other researchers’ data ....................................................................................82
14.3 Meta-analysis ......................................................................................................................................84
14.4 official staDsDcs ...................................................................................................................................84
14.5 Big data ...............................................................................................................................................86
WEEK 5+6 .................................................................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER 16 (TM 16.7): THE NATURE OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ...................................................................................87
16.2 what is qualitaDve research? ..............................................................................................................87
16.3 the main preoccupaDons of qualitaDve researchers ...........................................................................90
16.4 the main steps in qualitaDve research .................................................................................................91
16.5 Theory and concepts in qualitaDve research .......................................................................................92
16.6 research quality and qualitaDve research ...........................................................................................92
CHAPTER 17: SAMPLING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .....................................................................................................96
17.1 introducDon .........................................................................................................................................96
17.2 levels of sampling ................................................................................................................................96
17.3 what is purposive sampling? ...............................................................................................................96
17.4 Common forms of purposive sampling ................................................................................................98
17.5 Key consideraDons for sampling in qualitaDve research .....................................................................99
CHAPTER 18 (EXCEPT 18.5): ETHNOGRAPHY AND PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION .................................................................100
18.2 what are ethnography and parDcipant observaDon?........................................................................100
18.3 doing ethnography ............................................................................................................................101
18.4 WriDng ethnography .........................................................................................................................108
CHAPTER 19 (EXCEPT 19.7): INTERVIEWING IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH .........................................................................109
19.2 the qualitaDve interview....................................................................................................................109
19.3 preparing to conduct a qualitaDve interview ....................................................................................110
, 19.4 conducDng a qualitaDve interview ....................................................................................................113
19.5 ending a qualitaDve interview ...........................................................................................................117
19.6 Life history and oral history interviewing ..........................................................................................117
CHAPTER 20 (EXCEPT 20.5): FOCUS GROUPS ...........................................................................................................118
20.2 what is a focus group ........................................................................................................................118
20.3 conducDng focus groups ....................................................................................................................120
20.4 group interacDon in focus groups ......................................................................................................122
20.6 limitaDons of focus groups ................................................................................................................123
CHAPTER 23 (EXCEPT 23.9 & 23.9): QUALITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS................................................................................124
23.3 analyDc inducDon ..............................................................................................................................124
23.4 grounded theory ................................................................................................................................124
23.5 Coding qualitaDve data .....................................................................................................................129
23.6 themaDc analysis...............................................................................................................................130
23.7 narraDve analysis ..............................................................................................................................133
CHAPTER 7 (ONLY 7.7).........................................................................................................................................134
7.7 the criDque of quanDtaDve research ...................................................................................................134
CHAPTER 16 (ONLY 16.7).....................................................................................................................................135
16.7 the criDque of qualitaDve research....................................................................................................135
,Week 1 + 2
Chapter 1: The nature and process of social research
1.2 Social research: what is it and why do it?
What is ‘social research’?
Social research, a field of study involving social scien<sts from various disciplines, is essen<al
for genera<ng new knowledge and expanding our understanding of contemporary social life.
This book provides tools and techniques for conduc<ng social research projects, allowing
students to take ownership of their learning and contribute to our current understanding of
social life.
Key concept 1.1 research methods:
Research methods, such as surveys, interviews, and focus groups, are tools used by
researchers to gather and analyze data. the difference between a ‘research method’ and a
‘methodology’: the laJer is broader and refers to the overall approach being taken in the
research project and the reasoning behind your choices of this approach and the methods
involved.
Why do social research?
Social research is a crucial tool in understanding the complex nature of society, the dynamics
of groups and individuals, and the impact of ins<tu<ons and the digital revolu<on. It aims to
uncover answers to gaps in academic literature, inconsistencies between studies, and the
reasons behind certain aspects of social life. Research can also be ini<ated by observa<ons
or circumstances, such as the gendered nature of work or the widespread use of social
media on portable devices. Studying methods is essen<al for conduc<ng social research, as
it equips individuals with the necessary tools to contribute new findings and knowledge to
important topics and debates. There are many different reasons why people conduct social
research but these usually come back to the fact that there is an aspect of our
understanding of what goes on in society that is unresolved.
1.3 The context of social research methods
Academic social research u<lizes theories and intellectual tradi<ons to explore topics, with
theories playing a significant role in interpre<ng findings and influencing the research topic.
A theory is a group of ideas that aims to explain something, in this case the social world. The
theory-research rela<onship can have implica<ons for research. Some researchers view
theory as formulated at the beginning of a research project (deduc<ve), while others view it
as an outcome of the research process (induc<ve). This difference in approach impacts the
collec<on and analysis of data, with some sugges<ng a more open-ended strategy, while
others suggest a set of theore<cal ideas drive the data collec<on and analysis.
Epistemological and ontological ques9ons
Researchers' epistemological and ontological posi<ons significantly influence the research
process. Epistemological posi<ons raise ques<ons about how the social world should be
studied and whether the scien<fic approach advocated by some researchers (involving
formula<ng a hypothesis and then tes<ng it using precise measurement techniques) is the
,right one for social research. Ontological posi<ons, on the other hand, consider the nature
of the social world and social phenomena (meaning observed facts, events, or situa<ons).
Some researchers view the social world as external, influencing behavior, beliefs, and values,
while others view it as a constant process of reformula<on and reassessment. These
perspec<ves influence the way social research is conducted, highligh<ng the importance of
understanding the unique quali<es of people and their social ins<tu<ons.
Values, ethics, and poli9cs
The values of the research community significantly impact social research, with ethical issues
becoming increasingly important as new sources of data like social media become available.
Researchers oUen undergo ethical clearance processes before conduc<ng a social research
project, making it less likely to transgress ethical principles. In certain fields, such as social
policy, there is a strong view that those being researched should be involved in the research
process. This view is not universal but forms a considera<on for researchers in certain
inves<ga<ons. In recent years, there has been an increasing tendency to validate research
par<cipants as "knowers" and consider social research as an outcome of collabora<on
between all par<es involved. Social research operates within a wider poli<cal context,
including governmental poli<cs and non-party-poli<cal poli<cs, which can influence research
methods, research areas, and research ques<ons. The poli<cal context may also inform
training and personal values, shaping how researchers approach social research and
influencing the research areas they are interested in.
1.4 The main elements of social research
,The main elements of social research: Literature review
A literature review is a crucial component of any research project, allowing researchers to
explore exis<ng literature on a specific topic or issue. This process helps determine what is
known about the topic, the concepts and theories applied, research methods used,
controversies, contradic<ons of evidence, key contributors, and the implica<ons for your
own research. It is essen<al to familiarize oneself with the views and work of the main
figures in the field, as many topics have already been extensively researched.
To share this knowledge with future readers, including those assessing and grading the work,
a literature review is wriJen. This review should be cri<cal rather than descrip<ve, assessing
the significance of each piece of work and how it fits into the narra<ve. This approach helps
demonstrate the credibility of the research and the contribu<on it makes to the literature. It
is essen<al to be aware of what is already known about the topic and to consider the work
of others in the field.
The main elements of social research: Concepts and Theories
Concepts are labels used to understand the social world, oUen influenced by everyday
language. Social sciences have a rich tradi<on of concepts, including bureaucracy, power,
social control, status, hegemony, and aliena<on. These concepts are essen<al in social
research, organizing interests, signaling intended audiences, and promo<ng discipline. The
rela<onship between theory and research involves choosing between theories driving the
research process and theories as a product of the process, known as deduc<ve and induc<ve
approaches.
The main elements of social research: Research ques9ons
Research ques<ons are essen<al elements of research, as they provide explicit statements of
what the researcher intends to find out about. They help narrow down the broad area of
interest and express this more precisely and rigorously. However, not all research starts with
one, especially if it is exploratory in nature. Without clear research ques<ons, there is a
greater risk of low-quality research and unfocused research.
The advantages of research ques<ons include guiding the literature search, decisions about
research design, data collec<on and analysis, data wri<ng, avoiding unnecessary direc<ons,
and providing readers with a clear sense of the research's purpose. However, research
ques<ons and literature are likely to be intertwined in the early stages of a research project.
It is advisable to start with a ques<on but be open to adap<ng and shaping it as you review
the literature.
The nature of the research ques<on will determine how you proceed with your inves<ga<on
and what research design you use. For example, if you are looking at the impact of an
interven<on, an experiment might be appropriate, while if you are interested in social
change over <me, a longitudinal design might be appropriate. For research ques<ons
concerning par<cular communi<es, organiza<ons, or groups, a case study design might be
appropriate, while describing current a\tudes or behaviors at a single point in <me could
use a cross-sec<onal design.
,The main elements of social research: sampling
Sampling is a crucial aspect of social research, as it allows for the selec<on of representa<ve
samples from a wider group. This approach is oUen associated with quan<ta<ve research,
such as survey methods, where researchers aim to replicate a larger popula<on. However,
sampling principles apply to various types of inves<ga<on, such as selec<ng news ar<cles or
case studies. In social research, the goal is to understand the selected case or cases in depth,
and both the case or cases and the individuals within the case study context must be
selected according to relevant criteria.
The main elements of social research: Data collec9on
Data collec<on is a crucial stage in research projects, with methods like interviewing and
ques<onnaires being common. Structured approaches, such as self-comple<on
ques<onnaires and structured interviews, involve a researcher establishing their research
ques<ons and designing tools to collect data. Induc<ve approaches, like par<cipant
observa<on and semi-structured interviews, allow for an open mind and the emergence of
concepts and theories from the data, aligning with the deduc<ve rela<onship between
theory and research. These methods aim to answer research ques<ons without explicitly
sta<ng them.
The main elements of social research: Data analysis
Data analysis is a crucial aspect of research, involving the applica<on of sta<s<cal techniques
to collected data. It involves managing raw data, making sense of the data, and interpre<ng
the data. Managing data involves checking for flaws, such as in qualita<ve interviews, and
ensuring accuracy and high-quality before introducing it into soUware programs. Making
sense of the data involves iden<fying themes, breaking down data into component parts,
and coding it. In quan<ta<ve studies, researchers must choose how to interpret anomalies.
Data analysis is about data reduc<on, reducing the large body of informa<on to make sense
of it. It can refer to primary or secondary data analysis. With primary analysis, the
researchers who were responsible for collec<ng the data conduct the analysis. With
secondary analysis, the data is already collected and available.
The main elements of social research: Wri9ng up
Research is crucial for sharing and allowing others to learn from it. Social researchers write
their work using different styles, such as quan<ta<ve, qualita<ve, or mixed methods. The
introduc<on outlines the research area, literature review cri<cally examines it, research
methods are presented, results are presented, discussions discuss the implica<ons, and a
conclusion emphasizes the research's significance. This helps others build upon our work.
Chapter 4: (74-78) formula<ng suitable research ques<ons
Sources of research ques9ons
Research ques<ons can originate from personal interests, theory, research literature,
replica<on, puzzles, new developments in society, and social problems. These sources can be
personal, such as personal experiences with theme parks or social media, or theore<cal,
such as exploring masculinity online or the implica<ons of technological use. Replica<ng
research ques<ons from literature can help verify findings over <me or across different
,groups or countries. Puzzles can be based on economic or cultural factors, while new
developments in society or social problems can be mo<vated by mul<ple sources.
Types of research ques9ons
Research ques<ons can be categorized into descrip<ve and explanatory types, based on the
'Journalis<c Six'. Descrip<ve ques<ons focus on what, where, when, who, and how, while
explanatory ques<ons focus on why and how. Each type is important, but not necessarily
beJer or more important. For instance, understanding the gender pay gap, increasing crime
rates, and the reasons behind them is crucial for exploring phenomena and understanding
their impact on residents.
Evalua9ng research ques9ons
Research oUen begins with a general area of interest, but it may need to be narrowed down
to develop a <ghter focus. To achieve this, it is crucial to maintain a clear focus and select a
shortlist from the possible research ques<ons. The selec<on should be guided by the
principle that the research ques<ons must relate to one another, as this will help maintain
focus and contribute to the understanding of the discipline.
Effec<ve research ques<ons should be clear, researchable, have connec<ons with
established theory and research, be linked to each other, and be neither too broad nor too
narrow. Overly broad ques<ons may require extensive resources, while too narrow
ques<ons may hinder significant contribu<ons to the area of study. By selec<ng ques<ons
that are clear, researchable, and related, researchers can make a significant contribu<on to
their discipline's understanding and contribute to the field. By choosing ques<ons that are
both broad and narrow, researchers can create a well-rounded and impacbul disserta<on.
Formula<ng research ques<ons can be challenging, and they may change as you learn more
about your topic. To jus<fy your research ques<ons, it's essen<al to show how they came
about and why they're important. To jus<fy your choice of research ques<ons, demonstrate
the link between them and exis<ng literature. Research ques<ons should have some
connec<on with established theory and research, but you must also demonstrate that
connec<on.
Chapter 2: Social research strategies; quan<ta<ve research and qualita<ve research
Key concept; what is empiricism?
two meanings stand out. First, it is used to mean a general approach to the study of reality
that suggests that only knowledge gained through experience and the senses is acceptable.
The second meaning is related to this and refers to a belief that gaining ‘facts’ is a legi<mate
goal in its own right. It is this second meaning that is some<mes referred to as ‘naive
empiricism’.
2.2 Theories and research
What type of theory
The term 'theory' is oUen used to explain observed paJerns or events, but social theory
oUen focuses on theories with a higher level of abstrac<on. These theories include structural
, func<onalism, symbolic interac<onism, cri<cal theory, poststructuralism, and structura<on
theory. Merton (1967) dis<nguished between middle-range theories, which aJempt to
understand and explain a par<cular aspect of the social world, and grand theories, which
operate at a more abstract level. Grand theories are difficult to apply to social research, as
they lack clear links with the real world.
Middle-range theories are more likely to be the focus of empirical enquiry, opera<ng in a
limited domain, such as youth crime, juvenile delinquency, vo<ng behavior, educa<onal
aJainment, or ethnic rela<ons. They vary in terms of how widely they can be applied.
However, the term 'theory' is oUen used to refer to exis<ng background literature in an area
of social enquiry. Background literature oUen acts as the equivalent of a theory, and
research is condi<oned by and directed towards research ques<ons that come from an
examina<on of the literature.
The rela<onship between theory and research is crucial, as theory can emerge aUer the
collec<on and analysis of data associated with a project. Deduc<ve or induc<ve theory plays
a significant role in determining the rela<onship between theory and research.
The deduc0ve approach
Deduc<ve research involves a researcher drawing on knowledge about a
domain and relevant theore<cal ideas to deduce hypotheses, which are
specula<ons that can be tested empirically. These hypotheses are
embedded within concepts that need to be translated into researchable
en<<es, oUen referred to as variables. The process of developing and
tes<ng hypotheses involves considering how data can be collected on
each concept. Deduc<ve approaches are more commonly used in
quan<ta<ve research, and the role of theory in research is primarily used
in sociology to guide empirical inquiry. The process of revision of theory
involves induc<on, as the researcher reflects on the implica<ons of their
findings for the theory that prompted the exercise. However, not every
deduc<ve research project follows this exact sequence, as the use of
theory varies from study to study.
The induc0ve approach
Induc<ve research is an alterna<ve strategy for linking theory and
research, where theory is formed by drawing generalizable inferences
from observa<ons. However, just as deduc<on involves an element
of induc<on, the induc<ve process is likely to involve a degree of
deduc<on. Once the researcher has carried out some theore<cal
reflec<on on a set of data, they may want to collect further data in
order to establish the condi<ons in which a theory will and will not
hold. This is oUen called an itera<ve strategy and it involves moving
back and forth between data and theory. An example of an induc<ve
approach is the O'Reilly et al. (2012) study, which used a grounded
theory approach to analyze data and generate theory. This approach
is typically associated with qualita<ve research, as it involves moving
back and forth between data and theory. However, the induc<ve
