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Class Notes Psyc 271
Comprehensive Course notes for PSYC 271
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Module 1 - What is Biopsychology:The scientific study of the biology of behavior, or how the nervous system controls behavior and
cognition. There are many divisions to this study:
- Physiological Biopsychology: Studies the mechanisms of the brain through direct manipulation
and recording of the brain.
- Comparative Psychology: Study the behavior of different species to understand genetics and
evolution.
- Cognitive Neuroscience: Study of cognition, thought, and memory.
- Psychophysiology: Studies the relation between physiological activity and psychological
processes.
- Neuropsychology: Study of psychological effects of brain dysfunction in human patients.
- Psychopharmacology: Focuses on the manipulation of neural activity using drugs.
These regularly overlap but are considered distinct disciplines.
Animal Models:
For a model to be sufficient. It must be similar enough to what we are looking for. In the case of
biopsychology, that means that animal brains and behaviors have to be similar to human brains and
behaviors. As evolution is addition, many animals close to us on the phylogenetic tree have very similar
brain structures to ours, albeit missing the newest features like frontal cortexes. When looking for a
suitable model, we want to make sure we are looking at class-common behavior, or behavior shared
between a class of animals, rather than species specific behavior.
Module 2 - Nature vs Nurture? Human vs Animal?
Humans have a tendency to separate things into dichotomies, regardless of how accurate those
dichotomies may be.
Physiological vs Psychological:
First proposed by Rene Descartes, the idea was that the brain and mind were separate entities, and
therefore one could not be studied. This fell apart, as complex behaviors that were once though “human
only” were shown in other primates. One case that shows all human experience is produced by the brain
is from Oliver Sack. A patient suffering from damage to the right frontal and parietal area was having
trouble with awareness to the left side of his body. The patient woke and did not realize that his left leg
belonged to him. When asked where he thought his own leg was, the patient had no idea.
The second case describes self awareness in chimpanzees. By putting chimps in from of a mirror, they
soon began to use it to inspect themselves. For further proof, when put unconscious and given a red
eyebrow, the awakened chimps would immediately reach for their own eyebrow while watching the
mirror. Humans only master self-awareness by 18 months.
Nature vs Nurture:
Behavior is not influenced by nature or nurture in a vacuum, but rather stems from the interaction
between three factors:
1. Genetic Endowment
, 2. Experience
3. Perception
Human Evolution:
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Primates
Family: Hominin
Genus: Homo
Species: H.Sapiens
Despite modern humans existing for 200,000 years, most achievements have only been discovered in
the past 10,000 such as art, agriculture, and writing.
Epigenetics:
Histone acetylation and DNA methylation both influence the expression of genes, and therefore the
behaviors they control. Studies on maze-bright and maze-dull rats have shown that most behaviors have
a genetic factor, but that experience can mostly nullify that genetic advantage.
Module 3 – Neuroanatomy:
General Layout of the Nervous System:
It is divided into 2 parts, the Central and peripheral nervous system.
The CNS is then divided into the spinal cord and brain, while the PNS is divided into the somatic and
autonomic nervous systems. The autonomic system can then be even further divided into the
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
Meninges:
1. Dura Mater
2. Arachnoid membrane
3. Sub arachnoid space
4. Pia Mater
Blood-Brain Barrier:
Epithelial tissues in the brain form tight junctions that prevent everything but required nutrients from
passing through.
Cells of the Nervous System:
Neurons are composed of many parts including the dendrites, soma, axon, and synapses. Neurons can
be classified by the number of projections on their bodies:
, 1. Unipolar: Only one process
2. Bipolar: Two processes
3. Multipolar: More than two processes
4. Interneuron: No processes
Neuroanatomical Structure:
In the CNS:
- Nuclei: clusters of cell bodies (grey matter)
- Tracts: clusters of axons (white matter)
In the PNS:
- Ganglia: clusters of cell bodies (grey matter)
- Nerves: clusters of axons (white matter)
Glia:
Myelination is preformed by oligodendrocytes to multiple axons in the CNS while Schwann cells
myelinate one axon in the PNS. Schwann cells can also facilitate axonal regrowth.
Microglia initiate phagocytosis and inflammation responses when they detect pathogens in the brain.
Astrocytes Cover the outside of blood vessels and contribute to the blood brain barrier. They filter
beneficial chemicals into neurons while keeping out harmful ones.
Neuroanatomical Techniques:
It is difficult to visualize neurons due to how packed together they are. There are many techniques used
to make this easier.
Golgi Stain:
Using a chemical reaction between potassium dichromate and silver nitrate. The resulting silver
chromate can invade neurons and turn them black, allowing their individual silhouettes to be observed.
Nissl Stain:
Using a variety of dyes, the most prominent of which is cresyl violet, the number of neurons can be
estimated. The dyes in a Nissl stain permeate all cell types, but only bind strongly with molecules found
in neurons.
Electron Microscopy:
By coating a thin slice of neural tissues with an electron absorbing substance which is then taken up into
different parts of the neurons, scientists can pass a beam of electrons through the tissue onto a
photographic film. This allows us to see neuron structure in minute detail.
Neuroanatomical Tracing Methods:
There are two main types:
1. Anterograde (forward): Used to trace the paths of axons projecting away from cell bodies
located in a particular area.
2. Retrograde (backward): Used to trace the paths of axons projecting into a particular area.
, Anatomy of the CNS:
Spinal Cord:
The interior is made up of an H-shaped structure of grey matter surrounded by white matter. The two
dorsal horns point towards the back while the two ventral horns point towards the front. The Spinal
nerves connect to the spinal cord. They split into two roots – Dorsal and Ventral – which connect to their
respective sides of the spinal cord. All dorsal root axons are sensory while all ventral root axons are
motor.
Five Major Divisions of the Brain:
When the brain is forming, there are 3 swellings that then become five:
1. Telencephalon: Cerebral Hemispheres
2. Diencephalon
3. Mesencephalon: Midbrain
4. Metencephalon: Pons
5. Myelencephalon: Medulla
Myelencephalon:
The myelencephalon is the most posterior region of the brain. It is composed largely of tracts carrying
signals between the rest of the brain and body. It contains the reticular formation, a collection of ~100
neurons at the core of the brainstem that play a role in arousal. It is also called the Reticular activating
system.
Metencephalon:
Houses many ascending and descending tracts and part of the reticular formation. These structures form
the pons on the ventral surface. The metencephalon is also home to the cerebellum on the dorsal
surface which is important for sensorimotor control.
Mesencephalon:
The dorsal surface of the midbrain is the tectum. It is composed of two pairs of bumps called colliculi.
The posterior pair have auditory function while the anterior pair have visual motor function.
The ventral surface of the midbrain is called the tegmentum. It contains tracts as well as the reticular
formation. It also contains three colorful structures:
1. Periaqueductal Grey: The grey matter found around the cerebral aqueduct which connects the
third and fourth ventricles. It contains opiate receptors and functions to mediate analgesic
effects.
2. Substantia Nigra: Black Substance. Plays a role in the sensorimotor system
3. Red Nucleus: Plays a role in the sensorimotor system.
Diencephalon:
Composed of the thalamus and hypothalamus which are joined by the massa intermedia.
On the surface of the thalamus are white lamina made of myelinated axons. The most well understood
nuclei are the sensory relay nuclei that receive signals from sensory receptors, process them, and then
transmit them to the appropriate areas of the sensory cortex.
- Lateral geniculate nuclei: Receive visual input
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