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AQA A-level Sociology Research Methods Textbook Notes
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Notes on the entirety of the Research Methods chapter.
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Sociology AQA - Paper 1 - Methods in Context
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AQA A-level Sociology Education - Methods in Context
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AQA A-level Sociology Paper 1 Education Textbook Notes
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Isma KhalidResearch Methods
1 – Starting Research
3.1.1 > Designing a research project
3.1.2 > Research ethics
3.1.1 - Designing a Research Project:
Types of Data:
Primary and Secondary Data:
First Question sociologists ask when starting research - ‘What kind of data do I want?’
Data are the information produced by and used in a research project. There are two main types of data –
primary and secondary data. Researchers often use both types.
Primary data refers to information which was not present before the research began. It is generated by
the researcher during the actual process of research. It includes data produced by questionnaires,
interviews and observations.
Secondary data refers to information which already exists. It includes data from historical records,
official statistics, government reports, diaries, autobiographies, novels, newspapers, films and recorded
music.
Quantitative and Qualitative Data:
Second Question sociologists ask when starting research is ‘What form do I want the data in?’
There are two forms of data – quantitative data and qualitative data. Researchers often use both forms.
Quantitative data - This is data in the form of numbers. Examples include statistics on crime,
unemployment, marriage and divorce. Quantitative data are particularly useful for measuring the strength
of possible relationships between various factors, for example, age and internet use, and ethnicity and
educational attainment.
Qualitative data refers to all types of data that are not in the form of numbers. It includes:
> Descriptive data from observations, for example, a description of behaviour in a pub
> Quotes from interviews, for example, views on marriage
> Written sources, for example, diaries, novels and autobiographies
> Pictures, for example, photographs, paintings and posters
> Films and recorded music
Qualitative data can often provide a richer and more in-depth picture of social life than the numbers
provided by quantitative data. Many sociologists combine quantitative and qualitative data in their
research.
Validity and Reliability:
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Third Question sociologists often ask when starting research is ‘How good will my data be?’ Ideally, they
want data which are valid and reliable.
Validity Data are valid if they present a true and accurate description or measurement. For example,
official statistics on crime are valid if they provide an accurate measurement of the extent of crime.
Statistics on police recorded crime have often been used to measure the extent of crime in England and
Wales. This is not a valid measure for two main reasons:
First, there are many crimes not reported to the police which are therefore not recorded.
Second, research by Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary (2014) indicates that around 800,000
crimes (19% of all recorded crime) reported to the police each year were not recorded. Clearly, police
recorded crime does not provide valid data on the extent of crime.
Data are valid if the methods and procedures used to gather the data measure what they are supposed to
measure and/or accurately describe what they are intended to describe.
Reliability Data are reliable when different researchers using the same methods obtain the same results.
For example, if a number of researchers use the same procedures to measure attendance rates at the same
school and they all get the same results, then the data would be reliable. However, this does not mean the
data are valid. For example, the researchers may have used class registers to measure attendance and the
registers may not have been filled in accurately. As a result, they were not measuring what they were
designed to measure and the data they produced would not be valid.
The Research Process:
Designing a research project, conducting the research, and analysing the results involve a number of
decisions. These include choosing a topic, selecting appropriate research methods, and deciding whether
the research is morally right.
Choosing a Topic:
Choosing a topic for research is influenced by a range of factors:
Values and interests of the researcher - Researchers are likely to study something they consider to be
important. What they see as important is influenced by their values – their beliefs about right and wrong,
good and bad. For example, a sociologist who believes strongly in equality of opportunity may study the
relationship between social class and educational attainment, since there is evidence that class inequality
prevents equality of educational opportunity. Similarly, a sociologist who believes in gender equality may
study the position of women at work and compare their job status, workloads and rewards with those of
men.
Researchers sometimes choose a research topic because it reflects their hobbies and interests. For
example, they might be really involved with music and decide to do research on music festivals. Or, they
might like a particular type of music such as rap and examine whether it reflects the concerns of young
African Americans.
Issues of the day - Major concerns in society are sometimes reflected in sociological research. Today,
issues such as human rights, globalisation, the increasing gap between rich and poor, obesity, an ageing
population, immigration and radicalisation are concerns both in society and research projects.
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Funding - Choosing a research project is also influenced by a number of practical issues. For example, is
it affordable? Most research projects conducted by professional sociologists require funding. Research
funds are available from various sources – charitable foundations such as Joseph Rowntree Foundation
and the Runnymede Trust, government organisations such as the Economic and Social Research Council
(ESRC), and business organisations.
Each funding body has its own priorities. For example, industrial organisations will tend to fund projects
dealing with their particular concerns, such as solutions to stress in the workplace. The Joseph Rowntree
Foundation ‘makes grants available to individuals and projects seeking the creation of a peaceful world,
political equality and social justice’. The choice of research is sometimes shaped by the priorities of the
funding body.
Access to and availability of data - It makes little sense to choose a research topic where there is little or
no data available and/or little chance of producing it. Ease of access to people and places varies. For
example, there is little chance of conducting a systematic study of secret service organisations such as
MI5 or MI6.
Access to public places is relatively easy. People can usually be observed without too much trouble in
streets, shopping malls, pubs, clubs, museums, art galleries, concerts and music festivals. However,
permission is needed to research in places such as schools and hospitals. It is difficult to gain access to
and conduct research with certain groups – criminal gangs are an obvious example.
Theoretical position – Choosing a research topic is also influenced by the theoretical position of the
sociologist. Every theoretical position sees certain aspects of society as particularly important. For
example, Marxism sees the class system as the foundation of capitalist society. As a result, Marxists tend
to focus on topics such as class inequality, class conflict and class identity. Feminist sociologists will tend
to focus on gender issues, in particular gender inequality.
Choosing Research Methods – Practical Issues:
Having selected a topic, the researcher must then choose appropriate methods to collect data. The choice
of methods depends on a number of factors. There are a number of practical issues involved in the study
of research methods. They include the following:
Money - Research costs money. Sociologists may have a grant to pay for their research. However, they
must choose methods which match the money they have available. For example, if they were doing a
survey of parents and children about school dinners, then the money available might not cover lengthy
interviews but it might be enough for a brief questionnaire survey.
Time – Different research methods can take different amounts of time. For example, participant
observation, a method in which the researcher joins the group they are studying, sometimes takes more
than a year. A researcher’s time is limited. This might involve deciding to conduct a number of interviews
rather than a lengthy participant observation study.
People being studied - Some methods are more suitable than others for studying certain groups of
people. For instance, studying a teenage gang whose members are hostile to outsiders, particularly those
they see as a representing authority. Asking gang members for interviews or presenting them with
questionnaires is unlikely to produce the required data. However, joining in their activities and gaining
their trust can allow the researcher to obtain information by observing their behaviour. This method has
been used successfully by a number of sociologists.
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Safety - When choosing methods, researchers must be aware of the possible emotional and physical
dangers to themselves. Michael Haralambos’s research on African-American music in Chicago was based
on participant observation – observing by joining those he was studying. It was stressful and, at times,
dangerous. He was threatened with a gun on more than one occasion. But he needed to use participant
observation as he was in and out of bars, dancehalls, clubs and concerts, watching and listening
(Haralambos, 1994). In this case, the end – good data – in his view justified the risk.
Characteristics of the researcher – Researchers have a number of characteristics which may affect their
choice of research methods. For example, they have a certain age, gender, ethnicity and class which must
be considered when selecting methods for different types of research. This can be seen from Julia
O’Connell Davidson’s study of prostitution shown in the pictures. She chose participant observation and
acted as a receptionist in a brothel. In this case, gender was an important consideration of her choice of
method. In her words, ‘My identity as a woman affected the data I collected’. Both clients and workers
were more likely to talk freely and feel at ease with a woman rather than a man (O’Connell Davidson and
Layder, 1994).
Ethics - Today, there are ethical guidelines for research – guidelines for the right and wrong ways to
conduct research. For example, people should be made aware that they are participating in research, be
able to decide whether or not to take part, and be protected from physical and psychological harm. These
guidelines will affect the choice of method and the design of the research.
Generalisation and Representativeness:
When planning their research, sociologists need to decide whether they want to generalise from results of
their research. Generalising means making a statement about all on the basis of some. In terms of
research, making a statement about the group that has been studied and applying that statement to
members of the same group in wider society. For example, making a statement about the attitudes of all
women aged 20 to 30 in the UK based on the attitudes of some women aged 20 to 30 in the UK.
To make a generalisation from their research, sociologists must try to make sure that their research
participants are representative of the group in wider society. In terms of the above example, researchers
will try to make sure that the women aged 20 to 30 in their study are similar to the women aged 20 to 30
as a whole. For instance, if all the women in their study had children, were not in paid employment, had
university degrees and were of Chinese heritage, then they would not represent women aged 20 to 30 in
the UK. As a result, they would not provide a basis for generalisation of all women of that age group in
the UK.
If a sociologist aims to generalise from their research participants, then they must try to select a sample
which is representative of the group as a whole.
Pilot Studies:
Before starting the main research, some sociologists conduct a pilot study. This is a small-scale study to
check on the suitability of the methods to be used in the main research. Pilot studies often use a small
sample of the main group to be studied. Members of this sample will not, however, take part in the final
research. Here are some of the uses of a pilot study:
1 – If interviews or questionnaires are to be used, the questions can be tried out to make sure they are
understood by and make sense to the research participants.
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