NYSTCE English early childhood 2023 with complete solution questions and answers

Learning to read Reading is the most important subject addressed in school, Students who cannot read effectively are denied most other learning Phoneme The smallest part of spoken language that makes a difference in the meaning of words Represented by letters between slash marks Check- /ch/ /e/ /ck/ (3 phonemes). Children learn phonemes (the sounds of a language) before they learn to read Grapheme The smallest part of written language that represents a phoneme in the spelling of a word Can be one letter or several letters such as "sh" or "ea" Phonics a method for teaching people how to read and write an alphabetic language. It is done by demonstrating the relationship between the sounds of the spoken language (phonemes), and the letters or groups of letters or syllables of the written language (graphemes) Systematic phonics instruction The direct teaching of a set of letter-sound relationships in a clearly defined sequence, includes major sound/spelling relationships. It is more effective than non-systematic or no phonics instruction Systematic and explicit phonics instruction significantly improves word recognition and spelling. Produces the greatest impact on reading achievement. Students who receive phonics instruction are better at reading and spelling words. Better when started in Kindergarten and first grade Systematic and explicit phonics instruction improves reading comprehension It results in better growth in children's ability to comprehend what they read. Fluency is highly related to successful reading comprehension Systematic and explicit phonics instruction is beneficial regardless of socioeconomic status It is particularly beneficial for children having difficulty learning to read and who are at risk for developing future reading problems It is more effective than non systematic phonics instruction in helping prevent reading difficulties among at risk students and in helping children overcome reading difficulties Systematic and explicit phonics instruction should be introduced early Best when it begins in kindergarten or first grade Must be designed appropriately and taught carefully Should include teaching letter shapes and names, phonemic awareness, and all major letter-sound relationships Children should be taught to use this knowledge to read and write words Phonics instruction is not an entire reading program for beginning readers Young children should be solidifying their knowledge of the alphabet, engaging in phonemic awareness activities and listening to stories read aloud to them They also should be reading and writing letters, words, messages and stories Literature based programs that emphasize reading and writing activities Phonics instruction is embedded in these but letter sound relationships are taught incidentally (Non-Systematic) Basal reading programs that focus on whole word or meaning based activities They pay limited attention to letter-sound relationships and have little to no instruction in how to blend letters and pronounce words (Non-Systematic) Sight-word programs that begin by teaching a sight-word reading vocabulary from 50 to 100 words Only after they learn to read these words do children receive instructions in the alphabetic principle (Non-Systematic) Adding phonics workbooks or phonics activities These programs have not been effective. Such add-ons tend to confuse rather than help children read. (Non-Systematic) Phonemic awareness The ability to hear, identify, and manipulate the individual sounds (phonemes) in spoken words. The ability to notice, think about, and work with those individual sounds in spoken language. The better phonemic awareness the easier it is for a child to read and spell. The focus of phonemic awareness is narrow-to identify and manipulate individual sounds in words Phoneme isolation Recognize individual sounds in words. EX: What is the first sound in Van (V). Phoneme identity Recognize the same sound in different words Ex. "What sound is the same in fix, fall, and fun?" - "The first sound /f/" Phoneme categorization recognize a word with a sound that does not match the sound of other words Phoneme blending combine the phonemes to form a word. Then write and read the word Phoneme segmentation break a word into its separate sounds, saying each sound Phoneme deletion being able to identify a sound that has been deleted from a word. Phoneme addition make a new word by adding a phoneme to an existing word Phoneme substitution turning one word into another by substituting one phoneme for another. Phoneme substitution can take place for initial sounds (top-mop), middle sounds (top-tap) or ending sounds (top-tot). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read Children must be able to read words rapidly and accurately so that they can focus on the meaning of what they read Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to spell Teaching how to segment words into phonemes helps children spell. They understand that sounds and letters are related in a predictable way allowing them to relate the sounds as they spell Phonemic awareness instruction is most effective when children are taught to manipulate phonemes by using letters of the alphabet Teaching sounds along with the letters is important because it helps children to see how phonemic awareness relates to their reading and writing, Relating sounds to letters is the heart of phonemic instruction Phonemic awareness instruction is most effective when it focuses on only one or two types of phoneme manipulation Children make more gains in reading and in spelling when they focus on one or two types of phoneme manipulation at a time Phonological awareness A broad term that includes phonemic awareness as well as phonemes. Activities can involve work with rhymes, words, syllables and onsets and rimes Teaching phonological awareness Should include play and exposure to a variety of sounds and contexts of sounds. Clapping to sounds, singing songs that involve phoneme replacement, reading poems out loud, playing games with rhyming chants or finger plays, etc. Onset and rime They are parts of spoken language that are smaller than syllables but larger than phonemes. The initial consonant sound of a word followed by the vowel and all that follows. Onset the initial consonants(s) sound of a syllable (in bag its b-, in swim it's sw-) Rime the part of the syllable that contains the vowel and all that follows it (in bag its -ag and in swim it is -im) Fluency Means to read a text accurately and quickly, Fluent readers recognize words automatically and they group words quickly to help them gain meaning, they read aloud effortlessly and with expression, readers who have not developed fluency read slowly word by word, their reading is choppy, fluency is the bridge between word recognition and comprehension, fluent readers can focus on the meaning, fluency develops gradually through substantial practice Repeated and monitored oral reading improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement Students who read and reread passages orally as they receive guidance and/or feedback become better readers Repeated oral reading improves word recognition, speed, accuracy as well as fluency and to a less but still considerable extent reading comprehension Four re-readings are sufficient for most students Round robin reading Students take turns reading parts of a text aloud. This does not increase fluency because they are only reading small amounts No research evidence currently confirms that silent, independent reading with minimal guidance improves reading fluency and overall reading achievement Research suggests there are more beneficial ways to spend reading instructional time then by having students read independently without reading instruction Students should here models of fluent reading Teachers should read aloud daily and encourage parents to do the same to model how a fluent reader sounds while reading. The more models of fluent reading the better. Reading to children also increases their knowledge of the world, their vocabulary, their familiarity with written language and their interest in reading Students should read orally from text they can easily master Fluency develops as a result of many opportunities to practice reading with a high degree of success. The text students practice rereading orally should be relatively short. Poetry is especially well suited to fluency because they are often short and contain rhyme making them easy and fun. Vocabulary Refers to the words people must know to communicate effectively Oral Vocabulary refers to words used in speaking or recognized in listening Reading Vocabulary Refers to words we recognize or use in print. Vocabulary plays an important role in learning to read, children have a harder time reading words that are not apart of their oral vocabulary. It is also important for comprehension, you cannot understand a passage if you do not know what the words mean Children learn the meaning of most words indirectly, through everyday experiences with oral and written language Children engage in oral language daily Young children learn word meanings through conversations with other people, the more oral language experiences children have the more word meanings they learn Children listen to adults read to them Children learn word meanings from listening to adults read to them, Conversations about books help children learn new words and concepts and to relate them to their prior knowledge and experiences Children Read Extensively on their Own The more children read on their own the more words they encounter and the more meanings they learn Teaching specific words before reading helps both vocabulary and reading comprehension Before students read a text, it is helpful to teach them specific words they will see in the text, this will help them comprehend the text better as well as learn new words Extended instruction that promotes active engagement with vocabulary improves word learning Children learn best when they work actively with the words over an extended period of time. The more they use the words the more they know and remember them Repeated exposure to vocabulary in many contexts aids word learning Students learn new words better when they encounter them often and in various contexts Not all words can be directly taught so students need to learn how to develop effective word learning strategies such as How to use dictionaries to learn words meanings and deepen knowledge of words. How to use information about word parts to figure out the meanings of words in text. How to use context clues to determine word meanings Using dictionaries and other aids Students should be taught how to use these sources as it can be difficult. The most helpful dictionaries include sentences providing clear examples of word meaning in context Affixes are word parts that are "fixed to" either the beginning of words (prefixes) or the ending of words (suffixes). Example- unremarkable- un and able Prefix a syllable that appears at the beginning of a word, in combination with a root it creates a specific meaning. For example "mis" means wrong so in the word misspelling it means wrong spelling Suffix A syllable that appears at the end of a word Noun Suffixes One denotes the act of, state of, or quality of. For example, "ment" added to "argue" makes argument The other denotes the doer or one who acts. For example, "eer" added to "auction" makes "auctioneer". (other examples include hood, ness, tion..." Verb Suffixes these denote "to make" or "to perform the act of". For example "en" added to "soft" makes "soften" which mean "to make soft" Adjectival Suffixes these include suffixes such as "ful", "ish" and "able". When "ful" is added to "care" the word "careful" is made meaning full of care Base words words from which many other words are formed. Example- migrant- migrant worker, immigration, migrating Word roots the words from other languages that are the origins of many english words Context clues These are hints about the meaning of an unknown word that are provided in the words, phrases, and sentences that surround the word. Includes definitions, restatements, examples or descriptions Comprehension is The whole point of reading. Comprehension results when the student has the vocabulary and reading skills necessary to make sense of the whole picture. Can show comprehension skills as they draw inferences from the text, illustration etc. (How does the main character feel?) Teachers can help students with comprehension by teaching strategies such as Pre-reading titles, sidebars and follow up questions, Looking at illustrations, Predicting what's going to happen next in the story, Asking questions to check for understanding during the reading, Connecting background knowledge, Relating to the experiences or feelings of the characters Prior Knowledge Children who have had extensive literacy experience are better prepared to further develop their literacy skills in school than children who have not been read to or have fewer books Children with a scant literacy background are at a disadvantage Literal Comprehension refers to the skills a reader uses to deal with the actual words in a text such as identifying the topic sentence and main idea Critical Comprehension involves prior knowledge and an understanding that written material is the author's version of the subject and not necessarily anybody else's. It involves analysis of meaning, evaluation, and questioning Good Readers are Purposeful Good readers have a purpose for reading. They may read to learn about national parks or a textbook to satisfy course requirements Good readers are active Good readers make sense of the text and know how to get the most out of it. Instruction in comprehension can help students understand what they read, remember what they read and communicate with others about what they read Comprehension strategies are conscious sets of steps that good readers use to make sense of text, helps them become purposeful and active readers Metacognition "thinking about thinking'' good readers use metacognitive strategies to think and have control over there reading. They might start by clarifying their purpose for reading then monitoring their understanding, adjusting their speed to fit difficulty and after check for understanding Metacognitive skills can be grouped into three categories Awareness- involves identifying prior knowledge and defining learning goals Planning- involves scheduling time, making checklists and gathering materials Self-monitoring and reflection- identifying which strategies and techniques work best and maintaining focus and motivation Comprehension monitoring students who are good at monitoring their comprehension know when they understand what they read and when they do not. They have strategies to "fix up" problems in their understanding as the problems arise. Graphic Organizers illustrate concepts and interrelationships among concepts. Graphic organizers can help readers focus on concepts and how they are related to other concepts Examples of graphic organizers Reading- beginning, middle, end graphs or event maps Science- charts that show what animals need or how to classify living things Math- horizontal bar graphs or time lines Language arts- alphabet organizers or charts showing the components of the five paragraph essay General- KWL charts or weekly planners Semantic organizers look somewhat like spider webs with lines connecting a central topic ex. bubble map. They are used to identify related ideas and concepts in a text Recognizing story structure Story structure refers to the way the content and events of a story are organized into a plot. Students learn to identify the categories of content (setting, initiating events/reactions, goals etc.) and how this content is organized into a plot. Story maps show the sequence of events in simple stories. Summarizing a summary is a synthesis of the important ideas in a text. Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what they are reading, to condense this information, and to put it in their own words. Question Generation a good reader will constantly ask questions while reading about comprehension, vocabulary, connections to personal knowledge or experience, predictions, etc Textual Marking this engages the reader by having them interact with the text. The student should mark the text with questions or comments that indicate lack of understanding, importance, or key points Students can be taught to use comprehension strategies. Effective comprehension strategy instruction is explicit or direct Teachers tell readers how and when they should use strategies, what strategies to use and how to apply them. The steps are as follows direct explanation, modeling, guided practice, application Direct Explanation explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when to apply the strategy Modeling the teacher models how to apply the strategy, usually by "thinking aloud" while reading Guided practice the teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the strategy Application the teacher helps students practice the strategy Effective comprehension strategy instruction can be accomplished through cooperative learning Cooperative or collaborative learning involves students working together as partners or in small groups. It has been used successfully to teach comprehension strategies in content area subjects Effective instruction helps readers use comprehension strategies flexibly and in combination Good readers must be able to coordinate and adjust several strategies to assist comprehension. Multiple-strategy instruction teaches students how to use strategies flexibly as they are needed to assist with comprehension Reciprocal teaching the teachers and student work together to Ask questions about what they are reading, summarize parts of the text, clarify words and sentences students don't understand, and predict what might occur next in the text Children literature Children's literature as we know it did not exist until the late 1700's The Newbery medal is awarded to the best American children's book and the Caldecott medal is given to the best picture book Poetry Many different types, some rhyme some don't. It is among the oldest forms of literature Epic very long narrative poem, they have a monumental sweep, embrace the essence of an entire nation and frequently include mythical forces that influence the inevitable battles and conflicts. Examples- Odyssey, Iliad and Beowulf Lyric the lyric is closely related to the epic, but it is shorter and presents profound feelings or ideas. The terms elegy and ode refer to lyric poems Fable a short literary piece designed to present moral or truth. Frequently involve animals Folktale A story that is usually passed down orally and becomes part of a community's tradition Tall Tale Hyperbole, or extreme exaggeration is a primary characteristic of tall tales, which features characters and events beyond the realm of possibility that they defy belief Romance the romance and the epic are similar. Romance is concerned with love and chivalry Legend a heroic story or collection of stories about a specific person or persons. They are usually presented as fact but actually are a combination of fact and fiction Satire expresses the frailty of the human condition through wit, irony, mockery, sarcasm or ridicule doggerel a work that features awkward or rough verbiage. Most often this clumsy verse is the result of an inept writer, although occasionally may be intended as humor Short story the short story is a fictional piece, usually with a single theme Novel a fictional story that depicts characters in a plot. The novel builds on the epic and the romance Biography a full account of a person's life. Autobiography is written by the person Development of Oral language 1. Cooing 2. Babbling 3. One-Word Stage 4. Telegraphic Stage 5. Beginning Oral Fluency Adjectives a word that modifies a noun or pronoun. Examples- a GREEN apple, or EVERY computer Adverbs An adverb describes an adjective, a verb, or another adverb and answers three questions about them: how, when, and where Ex. modify a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?), an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?), another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?) Coordinating Conjunction used to link words or phrases. Examples- (FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so. correlative conjunctions are paired terms used to link clauses, examples- either/or, neither/nor, if/then subordinating conjunction relate subordinate or dependent clauses to independent ones. Examples- although, because, if, since, before, when... Gerund this is a verb form used as a noun. Most end in "ing". Example- walking Infinitive this is a verbal form consisting of the word "to" followed by the root form of a verb. It may be used as a noun, adjective, adverb or absolute, example- to hold, to reorganize, to remember Nouns names a person, place, thing, idea or quality. Can be used as a subject, object, complement, appositive or modifier Object, direct object, indirect object Object- a word or phrase that receives the action of a verb Direct object- states TO whom/what an action was committed. Answer the question "to what". Joan served FISH Indirect object- states FOR whom/what an action was committed. Joan served US the fish. Pronouns This is a word that represents a specific noun in a generic way. A pronoun functions like a noun in a sentence. Examples include I, she, he, it, myself, they, these, what, all, and anybody. Example-They say that eating beef is bad for you. They is a pronoun referring to someone, but who are they? Possessive pronoun Shows ownership. (my, your, his, her, its, our, their) Verbs Words that show action or a state of being. One of these is required in a sentence. Verbs carry the idea of being or action in the sentence. I AM a student. The students PASSED all their courses. Action verbs verbs that express an action being performed by the subject (caught) linking verbs verbs that link the subject to words that describe or identify the subject. Example- Mary IS an excellent teacher. Common linking verbs are all forms of the verb "to be", appear, feel, look, become, and seem Helping verbs when a single verb cannot do the job by itself because of tense issues, a second helping verb is added. Example- should have gone (gone is the main verb. While should and have are helping verbs) Preposition this is a word that links a noun or pronoun to other parts of a sentence. Example- above, by, for, in and though Prepositional phase a combination of a preposition and a noun or pronoun. Examples- across the bridge, against the grain, below the horizon Colons used to set up a list, direct readers to examples or explanations, introduce quotations or dialogue. (We will need these items: a pencil, paper and an eraser.) Semicolons used to join related independent clauses, join independent clauses connected by conjunctive adverbs (Joan likes eggs; Jenn does not.) Subject verb agreement A verb must agree in number with its subject. It changes form based on whether the subject is singular or plural. If two subjects are joined by "and" the plural form of the verb is usually used If the compound subjects are preceded by each or every they take the singular form of the verb If one noun in a compound subject is plural and the other is singular the verb takes the from of the subject nearest it. Collective nouns that name a group are considered singular if they refer to the group as a unit (a choir) Syntax Refers to the rules related to how to properly structure sentences and phrases. It is not the same as grammar "I does" is syntactically correct because the subject and verb are in order but it is grammatically incorrect because the subject and verb don't agree Simile comparison using "like" or "as", "as pretty as a picture" Metaphor comparison not using "like" or "as" "my soul is a dark forest" Synechdoche the use of a part of something to signify the whole. "Boots on the ground" can mean soldiers in a field Metonymy the use of one term that is closely associated with another to mean the other. Saying "crown" when referring to the monarchy Inductive reasoning using particulars to draw a general conclusion. This process starts with data Deductive reasoning the opposite of inductive reasoning. Involves using general facts or premises to come to a specific conclusion Beginning Stages of Writing Drawing pictures is the first written attempt to express thoughts and feelings. The scribble stage begins when the child attempts to draw shapes or imitate writing. Instruction begins with teaching children to write from left to right. Children's writing usually starts with their names. Words may not be complete but it is likely the correct beginning and end sounds/letters Literacy as defined by UNESCO The ability to identify, understand, create, communicate, compute, and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. By this definition understanding cultural, political, and historical contexts of communities falls under literacy Second language acquisition- since some students may have little understanding of english a teacher should promote second language acquisition by Making instruction understandable and simple, connecting to ESL cultures increasing interactive activities and using non verbal cues, initiate opportunities to experiment with and practice new language Learning approach assumes that language is first learned by imitating adults then solidified in school through drills Linguistic approach the ability to use language is innate, it is a biological approach rather then one based on cognition or social patterning (Naom Chomsky) Cognitive approach children must develop appropriate cognitive skills before they can acquire language (based off of Piaget) Sociocognitive approach language development is a complex interaction of linguistic, social and cognitive influences Encourage ELLs to listen by Talk about topics that are of interest to ELL learners, talk about content or give examples that are easy to understand or is related to a topic that is familiar to an ESL Three ways to make listening rewarding to an ELL student is by Avoiding colloquiums or abbreviated and slang terms, make the spoken language understandable by stopping to clarify points, support the spoken word with as many visuals as possible Top down processing The listener refers to background and global knowledge to figure out the meaning of a message Bottom up processing The listener figures out the meaning of a message by using "data" obtained from what is said Listening lesson steps Pre listing activity- establishes the purpose of the lesson and engages students in background knowledge Listening activity- requires the learner to obtain information and then immediately do something with that information Post-listening activity- this is an evaluation process that allows the listener to judge how well they did with the listening task Orton-Gillingham Approach Multi-sensory method of teaching language-related academic skills that focuses on the structure and use of sounds, syllables, words, sentences, and written discourse. Instruction is explicit, systematic, cumulative, direct, and sequential. It teaches synthetic phonics, discourages independent reading and likes using a dictionary to learn word pronunciation. Does not emphasize reading for meaning Early Production Stage During this stage, students may begin to use one word or short phrase descriptors to communicate. Students can show understanding by answering yes/no questions, providing one-word answers. Directionality the ability to identify the orientation and alignment or words in given language, is the foundational skill needed for tracking print and recognizing one-to-one correspondence (the ability to match written word to spoken word) In order to segment sentences into spoken words students need to be able to recognize the characteristics of individual words and word boundaries. This skill would require students to recognize individual letters within words text directionality read left to right, top to bottom Print Concepts Knowledge about the features of a book. Print concepts include: directionality, spaces between words, uppercase and lowercase letters, and the knowledge that printed symbols carry a message. Morphemes The smallest meaningful units in a given language can be words (cat, bread, mouth) or parts of words (ing, un, ment) morphological analysis analyzing the stream of speech to discover and inventory its morphemes Orthographic processing Using visual systems to make, store and recall words. It helps students understand the relationship between sounds in speech and the letters that represent them