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Neuroscience Preparation Summary | Brain Bee

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The following is the SUMMARY of all the topics you need to know for your Neuroscience preparation exam or competition. There are various topics discussed throughout it that range from the "Brain basics to Drugs and Addictions, Movement, Learning, Memory" and just SO MUCH MORE... Furthermore, the in...

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  • April 11, 2023
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  • 2022/2023
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tejsingh
Tej Singh

April 09, 2023


BRAIN BEE And/ Neuroscience Prep Summary
Some IMPORTANT TERMS (Can Add your Own):
- The Nervous System (two main parts): The central nervous system is made up of the brain and
spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is made up of nerves that branch off from the spinal cord
and extend to all parts of the body.
- Neural Network: A neural network is a series of algorithms that are made to recognize underlying
relationships in a set of data through a process that mimics the way the human brain operates.
- Neural circuits are the basic mechanism for processing information in the brain.
- The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the brain and is responsible for processing information from
the senses, controlling voluntary movements, and cognitive functions such as thinking, perceiving,
and understanding language. It is divided into four main lobes: the frontal lobe, parietal lobe,
temporal lobe, and occipital lobe, and each lobe does a specific function.
- Neurons are specialized cells that are the fundamental units of the nervous system, responsible for
transmitting information throughout the body. They receive, integrate, and transmit electrical signals
and chemical information to other neurons, muscles, or glands. They consist of a cell body, dendrites
(which receive signals from other neurons), and an axon (which transmits signals to other neurons or
to muscles or glands). There are different types of neurons, including sensory neurons, motor
neurons, and interneurons, that have different functions in the nervous system.
- Stimuli- Stimulus and sensation refers to the process by which sensory information is detected by
specialized neurons in the peripheral nervous system, such as those in the eyes, ears, nose, tongue,
and skin. And then these signals get sent to the brain.
- Ganglion cell - The major output cells of the retina.
- Macula: Part of the retina at the back of the eye.
- Cranial nerves - A set of 12 paired nerves in the back of your brain. Cranial nerves send electrical
signals between your brain, face, neck and torso. Your cranial nerves help you taste, smell, hear and
feel sensations. They also help you make facial expressions, blink your eyes and move your tongue.
(IMPORTANT…)
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Chapter 1: Brain Basics

- The brain is the control center of the body, containing billions of neurons that transmit
information to and from the body and the external
environment. It is responsible for programming our
responses, both conscious and unconscious, to
stimuli. The brain is capable of performing multiple
tasks at the same time, such as throwing a ball while
talking to a friend, planning dinner while shopping, or

, daydreaming while driving to work. This is due to the fact that the brain is divided into
numerous specialized regions, each with its own specific function and ability. The different
regions of the brain work together to perform complex tasks, such as problem-solving,
decision-making, and memory retrieval.
- The cerebrum is the largest part of the human brain, and it is divided into two hemispheres
- left and right - that are connected by the corpus callosum, which is a bundle of nerve
fibers.
- The surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex, which is a deeply folded layer of
nerve tissue. The folds increase the area of the cerebral cortex, which in turn increases the
brain's processing power.
- The cerebral cortex is divided into lobes, which are distinct regions with characteristic
functions. Neuroscientists use the deepest divisions of the cerebrum to identify these
regions as separate lobes.
● The frontal lobes are located at the front of the brain, above the eyes.
● The frontal lobes coordinate voluntary movements, speech, memory, emotion, cognitive
skills, planning, and problem-solving
● The parietal lobes are located at the top of the brain, behind the frontal lobes. The parietal
lobes integrate sensory signals from the skin, process taste, and process some types of
visual information
● The occipital lobes are located at the back of the brain. The occipital lobes process visual
information and recognize colors and shapes
● The temporal lobes are located at the sides of the brain, at and below the level of the eyes.
The temporal lobes carry out some visual processing, interpret auditory information, encode
new memories, and integrate memory and emotion
● The hippocampus and amygdala are part of the limbic system. The limbic system regulates
emotion and motivation, and includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, and cerebral cortex
- The midbrain (very middle part of the brain, medium size) is located beneath the thalamus
and plays a role in controlling body movements, coordinating sensory input, and motor
output.
- The basal ganglia, located in the midbrain and forebrain, helps regulate complex body
movements.
- The hindbrain is responsible for glucose regulation, sleep, and controlling movement. It
includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla.
- The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements, helps in learning new motor skills, and
has a role in spatial and temporal perception.
- The pons influences breathing and posture while the medulla contains neural networks that
help control basic functions such as swallowing, heart rate, and breathing.
- Together, the midbrain, pons, and medulla make up the brainstem.
● BRAIN EVOLUTION: The human brain evolved from a simple tube.
● Early vertebrates (Vertebrates are animals with a backbone or
spinal column) had brains similar to the modern lancelet ( is a
small fish-like marine invertebrate).
● The human brain is divided into the same regions as the
brains of our ancestors.

,● The "brain" end of the nerve cord in early vertebrates had three bulges, which became the
forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.
● The forebrain expanded to form the olfactory bulbs and light-sensing regions that process
visual signals.
● The cerebellum appeared in the hindbrain, which expanded the regions that control escape
movements and orient the body in space.
● Regions that process visual and auditory information expanded in vertebrates and made
the forebrain balloon out, forming the cerebral hemispheres.
● Cortical tissues in the cerebrum and the cerebellum expanded even further, packing new
neurons into layers and folds generating more complex tissues with increased processing
power.
- NEURAL NETWORKS: Information in the brain is transmitted via chains of neurons that
can transmit signals over long distances.
- When nerve fibers of region-spanning neurons form distinct bundles, it is called nerve
tracts.
- A group of nerve tracts connecting a series of regions in the brain is called a neural
network.
- Neural networks route signals through the brain along a linear pathway, analyzing and organizing
different types of information within fractions of a second.
- The process of watching a movie begins with photoreceptors in the retina that trigger
electrical signals in response to specific wavelengths of light.
- The signals then travel through the optic nerve to the thalamus, where neurons respond to
the shape, color, or movement of objects on the screen.
- Neurons in the primary visual cortex detect the edges of objects within the field of vision
and integrate the signals from each eye, creating a 3-D representation of the world.
- Signals are sent down two parallel processing streams: one for object recognition and
identification and the other for spatial location detection.
- New technologies are allowing us to gain more insight into the specific brain regions used
for performing different functions.
● NETWORK ACTIVITY CREATES BRAIN WAVES: The
visual cortex sends signals back to the thalamus to become
integrated with other sensory information.
● This is an example of a "thalamocortical loop," a two-way
circuit that connects the thalamus with parts of the cortex
and back.
● Neuronal signals loop through the thalamus and cortex,
producing rhythmic, oscillating, electrical patterns called
brain waves.
● There are four types of brain waves: alpha waves, beta
waves, theta waves, and delta waves.
● Alpha waves originate mainly in the parietal and occipital lobes when the brain is relaxed
and eyes are closed and have frequencies between 8 and 13 Hz.
● Beta waves have frequencies ranging from 14 to 30 Hz and are produced by frontal and
parietal regions of the brain when processing sensory input or concentrating on a task.

, ● Theta and delta waves are typical of sleep. Theta waves range from 4 to 7 Hz, while delta
waves, which occur during deep sleep, are very slow, with frequencies less than 3.5 Hz.
● Alpha and delta waves are typically of higher amplitude than beta or theta waves.
● When measured with electrodes on the scalp, all these signals are in the microvolt range:
20–200 μV for alpha and delta waves, and 5-10 μV for beta and theta waves.
- Neurons are organized into a stack of distinct layers that span the thickness of the cortex
like shelves in a bookcase.
- NEURAL NETWORKS ORGANIZE AND INTEGRATE INFORMATION: The brain and
spinal cord contain many distinct neural networks.
- These networks help to process sensory and motor signals.
- Spinal tracts pass signals through the brainstem and spinal cord.
- The basal ganglia are part of a feedback loop that takes information from cortical areas that
elicit movement.
- Loops that connect the brainstem and cerebellum influence the timing and strength of
motor signals.
- Networks that loop the hippocampus into sensory cortex pathways help the brain analyze
environmental signals.
- Reflex loops allow for action without the involvement of conscious thought.
● NEURAL CIRCUITS: Every region of the brain has a specialized subset of information that
it analyzes.
● Neural circuits are the basic mechanism for processing information in the brain.
● The cerebral cortex is full of neural circuits, arranged in columns and layers.
● The neurons in a column form a single chain, and signals that enter the circuit travel down
that chain from one neuron to the next.
● Each time the signal is fed forward, it is transformed in some way, building outputs that
encode complex information.
● Each column in the cortex is dedicated to one specific processing task, but a column's final
output can be influenced by nearby circuits.
● Every neuron in a circuit has connections to neurons in neighboring columns, and the
strength of signals from neighboring circuits can dynamically shift a neuron's response.
● This dynamic organization may help the brain react flexibly to different situations.
- EXCITATORY AND INHIBITORY NEURONS: 80% of neurons in the brain are excitatory,
20% are inhibitory.
- Pyramidal cells are a common type of excitatory neuron in the cerebral cortex.
- Inhibitory neurons suppress the activity of neighboring neurons and regulate circuit activity.
- Neural circuits contain both excitatory and inhibitory neurons.
- Excitatory neurons tend to pass signals forward through a circuit, while inhibitory neurons
often loop their responses back to earlier segments of a circuit.
- The interplay between excitatory and inhibitory signals in a circuit is important in learning, tuning,
and smoothing signals sent to the body and other parts of the brain.
- Imbalances in excitatory and inhibitory neuron activity may cause seizure disorders like
epilepsy.
- Different input architectures in circuits affect how circuits manage information.

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