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Notes for midterm one with practice material (multiple choice)
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- McGill University (Mcgillu)
Notes for midterm one with practice material (multiple choice)
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- Phrenology: Franz Gall is known for his work in phrenology, a field that attempted to mapspecific brain functions to regions of the brain by examining the bumps and contours of the
skull's surface. Although his "funny map of the brain" was not accurate, he was one of the
first individuals to inquire whether specific brain regions were associated with specific
cognitive functions. Gall believed that by feeling the bumps on a person's skull, one could
infer their aptitude for various abilities, such as language or mathematics.
- Neuropsychology: Neuropsychology is a multidisciplinary field that combines clinical
practice with the scientific study of neuroanatomy and neurophysiology to understand how
cognitive processes are linked to the brain's structure and function.
- Origins of Neuropsychology: Pierre Paul Broca, a French neurologist, is often considered
one of the founders of neuropsychology. He conducted extensive neuropsychological
assessments on patients with brain lesions caused by strokes or other factors. Broca's most
famous patient, known as "Tan," had suffered a stroke and lost the ability to speak. Broca's
evaluations revealed that Tan's language comprehension and intelligence were intact, but
he had a specific deficit in producing language. After Tan's death, Broca conducted an
autopsy and localized the lesion responsible for Tan's language deficit to the inferior frontal
gyrus (IFG), which came to be known as Broca's area. This ground-breaking work
demonstrated functional localization—the concept that specific brain areas are associated
with specific deficits when lesioned.
- Microanatomical Investigations:
Advances in microscopy allowed researchers to examine the cellular structure of the
brain, including the types of cells present.
Staining techniques were developed to visualize neurons and study their structure.
Cytoarchitecture, the study of the cellular architecture of brain regions, provided
valuable insights into brain organization.
- Brain Mapping:
Mr. Brodmann created a brain map based on cytoarchitecture, differentiating brain
regions by the types of cells present.
This map, from 1909, is still widely used in neuroscience, enabling researchers to
refer to specific brain regions consistently.
Brain mapping based on cytoarchitecture became a critical tool for understanding
functional localization in the absence of modern neuroimaging.
- Dr. Wilder Penfield:
Dr. Penfield, a neurosurgeon at the Montreal Neurological Institute, played a pivotal
role in mapping brain functions.
He developed the Montreal procedure, an awake craniotomy technique, to remove
brain regions causing epileptic seizures in patients.
During surgery, he stimulated various brain areas and observed patients' responses,
allowing him to identify the sensory and motor maps on the cortex.
The sensory and motor maps, including the "homunculus," represented body parts
in a disproportionate and contralateral manner.
- Brenda Milner:
, Brenda Milner, often referred to as the "mother of neuropsychology," made
significant contributions to the field.
She worked with Dr. Penfield and assessed patients before and after brain surgery to
understand the effects of lesions on cognitive functions.
Her most famous patient, H.M., had bilateral medial temporal lobe removal, leading
to profound memory deficits.
Milner's work with H.M. revealed the crucial role of the hippocampus in memory
and emphasized the heterogeneity of memory processes.
- Brain Structure:
Gray Matter: Located on the surface of the brain, it contains cell bodies of neurons
and is responsible for most brain functions.
White Matter: Found beneath the Gray matter, it consists of axons, which are
wrapped in myelin for efficient electrical signal transmission.
Subcortical Structures: Gray matter regions within the white matter, primarily
responsible for more basic and autonomic functions.
Cerebellum: A small brain-like structure at the bottom of the brain, crucial for
balance and motor functions.
- Brain Folds: The brain's characteristic folds or gyri are explained as essential adaptations to
fit many neurons into a relatively small space. Evolutionary changes have resulted in these
folds, allowing for increased brain complexity while maintaining a manageable head size.
- Sulci and Gyri: The terms "sulcus" and "gyrus" are introduced. Sulci are the folds or grooves
in the brain, while gyri are the raised areas between these grooves. Sulci and gyri are crucial
for brain organization.
- Importance of Sulci: The lecture emphasizes that sulci are not just empty spaces but house
important brain regions. Approximately 50% of the cortex is hidden within sulci, containing
essential functions that are as important as those on the visible surface.
- Consistency in Brain Folding: The folding patterns of the brain are generally consistent
across individuals, making them useful for studying brain structures. Researchers create
average brain models based on these consistent patterns to study groups of individuals.
- Sulci as Landmarks: Sulci are used as landmarks to separate different brain regions and
lobes. Several sulci are introduced, including the central sulcus, Sylvian fissure, and parietal
occipital sulcus.
- Temporal Lobe and Visual Processing: The lecture delves into the temporal lobe, explaining
that it primarily processes visual information. Visual information from the eyes is relayed to
the posterior part of the brain, known as the occipital cortex.
- Visual Processing Pathways: The visual processing pathways from the eyes to different
brain regions, such as V1, V2, V3, and beyond, are briefly mentioned.
- Calcarine Sulcus: V1 (primary visual cortex) is hidden within the calcarine sulcus, which is
also part of the occipital lobe.
- Lateral Surface of the Temporal Lobe: The lecture explores the lateral surface of the
temporal lobe, introducing the superior temporal gyrus (STG), middle temporal gyrus
(MTG), and inferior temporal gyrus (ITG). The boundaries between these regions are not
well-defined, and the lecture mentions that this area becomes more significant in language
processing.
, - Medial and Ventromedial Surfaces: The lecture describes the medial and ventromedial
surfaces of the temporal lobe, highlighting the fusiform gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus.
These regions have specific functions, including memory and smell processing.
- Piriform Cortex: At the very tip of the temporal lobe, the piriform cortex is responsible for
the sense of smell.
- Hippocampus: The lecture introduces the hippocampus, explaining its seahorse-like shape.
The hippocampus is critical for memory functions and is located within the
parahippocampal gyrus.
- Primary Auditory Area: Inside the Sylvian fissure, the primary auditory area processes
auditory information from the ears. Further processing of auditory information for language
comprehension takes place in the posterior temporal area.
- Language Processing: The lecture briefly touches on language processing regions, including
Wernicke's area (for language comprehension) and Broca's area (for language production).
- Ventral Stream of Vision: The ventral stream of vision, responsible for recognizing shapes,
colors, and objects, is primarily located in the temporal lobe.
- Transition Between Occipital and Temporal Lobes: The transition between the occipital
areas and the temporal lobe is gradual, with no clear boundaries between the lingual gyrus,
fusiform gyrus, and parahippocampal cortex.
- Insula Location: The insula is located deep within the Sylvian fissure, making it hidden from
both the medial and lateral surfaces of the brain. To visualize the insula, you need to open
the Sylvian fissure.
- Subcortical Structures: While the primary focus is on cortical areas, the speaker briefly
mentions subcortical structures, acknowledging that they are not as crucial for the higher
cognitive functions discussed in the lecture.
- Frontal Lobe: The frontal lobe is the largest and most developed part of the brain. It plays a
central role in various higher cognitive functions, including decision-making, intelligence,
and language production.
- Motor Cortex: The primary motor cortex (M1) and secondary motor areas (e.g., area 4 and
area 6) are located on the precentral gyrus. These regions are responsible for guiding
muscle movements.
- Prefrontal Cortex: The prefrontal cortex, located anterior to the motor cortex, is associated
with higher cognitive functions such as language production (Broca's area), working
memory, executive functions (planning, organization, decision-making), and emotional
regulation.
- Orbital Frontal Cortex: The orbital frontal cortex, located anterior and medial to the IFG, is
essential for managing emotions and making decisions based on emotional responses.
- Emotion Regulation: The amygdala, located inside the temporal lobe, is closely connected
to the orbital frontal cortex. This connection is crucial for regulating emotions.
- ADHD: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is mentioned briefly as a condition
associated with frontal lobe dysfunction, particularly in terms of attention and focus
regulation.
- Variability in Brain Gyri: The lecture ends with a mention of the variability in brain gyri
(folded structures on the brain's surface) among individuals, but it's not discussed in detail.
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