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Sustainability Midterm Summary
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Summary of all the readings of week 1-3 for the course of Sustainability Politics: Paradigms and Debates
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Week 1(Allan, 2011)
https://www.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-binaries/36028_1.pdf
In the Beginning There Was Modernity
The Making of Modernity:
Historical Context:
● Modernity emerged in the seventeenth century, characterized by significant social
changes such as urbanization, division of labor, commodification, bureaucracy, and
national identities.
● Key defining institutions of modernity include nation-states, mass democracy,
capitalism, science, and mass media.
Roots in Enlightenment and Positivism:
● Modernity is not just a period but a way of knowing rooted in the Enlightenment and
positivism.
● The Enlightenment, starting around the publication of Newton's Principia Mathematica
in 1686, emphasized reason and logic to enlighten the world, challenging traditional
authorities like the Church and monarchy.
● Central ideas of the Enlightenment were progress, empiricism, freedom, and tolerance.
Significance of Progress and Empiricism:
● Before the Enlightenment, progress wasn't a significant concept as traditional
knowledge was based on tradition and religion.
● Enlightenment introduced the idea that progress is achievable through empirical
observation and testing, as opposed to relying on tradition or divine revelation.
Positivism and Scientific Knowledge:
● Positivism asserts that theology and metaphysics are imperfect ways of knowing, while
positive knowledge is based on facts and universal laws, akin to scientific knowledge.
● Science assumes the universe operates according to law-like principles, and
knowledge is built through empirical testing and accumulation of theories.
● Positivistic knowledge relies on doubt rather than faith, distinguishing it from previous
forms of knowledge and giving modern progress its meaning.
Modernity’s Two Projects:
Technical Project of Modernity:
● Dominated by science, the technical project aims to control the universe through
technology.
● Science is central to this project, utilizing knowledge to develop technologies for
manipulating the natural world.
, Social Project of Modernity:
● Responsibility for the social project primarily rests with the democratic state in modern
societies.
● Prior to modernity, Europe was predominantly governed by feudalism, characterized by
land tenure and personal relationships organized around the monarchy.
● In feudal Europe, personal obligations to the monarch and one's relationship to the
land were paramount, with clear social divisions between royalty and peasants.
Emergence of Modern Democracy:
● Modern democracy emerged with the American and French Revolutions, grounded in
the belief in natural human rights.
● The U.S. Declaration of Independence articulates this belief, emphasizing the inherent
rights of all individuals, including life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
● The social project of modernity is founded on the idea of natural human rights,
implying that government must rule by the consent of the governed, leading to the rise
of democracy.
Citizenship and Rational Individualism:
● In modern democracy, the primary identity shifts from subjects in feudalism to citizens.
● Both science and citizenship are based on the idea of the rational individual, capable
of using reason to determine truth, discover the world, and make rational decisions.
● This belief in the rational individual underpins the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason
and forms the basis for both scientific inquiry and the social project of modernity.
● Democracy becomes necessary to govern individuals capable of rational inquiry and
reasonable action, as governance can only occur with their consent.
America and the First Sociologists:
Early Sociologists and Their Backgrounds:
● The first sociologists, such as Alexis de Tocqueville, Harriet Martineau, and Jane
Addams, were not formally trained in sociology but were travelers observing society,
particularly in the United States.
● The United States was viewed as a pioneering experiment in democracy, attracting
observers keen to understand how modern democracy functioned.
Contributions of Early Sociologists:
● Alexis de Tocqueville's "Democracy in America" (1835, 1840) provided insights into
American democracy.
● Harriet Martineau translated Auguste Comte's "Positive Philosophy" and authored
"How to Observe Morals and Manners" (1838), laying the groundwork for social
science methodology.
● Martineau emphasized the importance of systematic observation and rigorous
research in studying society, highlighting the complexity of social inquiry.
● Martineau's methodology involved comparing American ideals (morals) with actual
practices (manners), viewing the ethical dimension of democracy as crucial.
, Ethics and Democracy:
● Jane Addams, in "Democracy and Social Ethics" (1902), emphasized the ethical
dimension of democracy and the importance of righteousness in society.
● Addams saw democracy as a rule of living and a test of faith, emphasizing the
association of the individual with the collective and the emergence of ethics through
diverse interactions.
● Democratic ethics arise from interactions among diverse individuals, necessitating
engagement with people unlike oneself to foster true democratic ideals.
● Tocqueville highlighted the morality inherent in the democratic process, emphasizing
the diversity of thought and the importance of public discourse in creating consensus.
● Modern morality is not static but emerges from ongoing and public deliberation among
diverse individuals, reflecting the collective wisdom of the majority.
Conclusion:
● Early sociologists like Tocqueville, Martineau, and Addams contributed valuable
insights into the ethical dimensions of democracy and the importance of diverse
interactions in shaping democratic ideals and practices.
Democratic Institutions:
Separation of Church and State:
● Modernity separates church and state, marking a departure from premodern societies
where religion and government overlapped, often legitimizing each other.
● Democracy requires this separation to function, as theocracy, where power derives
from a divine source, contrasts with democracy where power originates from the
citizens.
Rise of Capitalism:
● Modern capitalism replaced the rigid social hierarchy of premodern societies, where
social position was largely determined by birth.
● Capitalism introduced entrepreneurship and mobility based on individual talent and
effort, challenging the traditional static economic structure.
Significance of Education:
● Education plays a central role in both the technical and social projects of modernity,
embodying the transition from force-based social relations to knowledge-based ones.
● Martineau, Tocqueville, and Addams emphasize the importance of education in
fostering democratic citizenship and empowerment.
● Martineau highlights the extent of free education and the position of universities as
indicators of societal commitment to equality and democracy.
● The university serves as a stronghold of liberty, where citizens engage in critical
examination of societal progress and advocate for social goals.
Challenges to Democratic Education:
● The commodification of education, where it is primarily seen as a means for job
attainment, poses a threat to democratic ideals.
, ● Martineau criticizes the American system for providing limited opportunities for higher
education compared to primary education, undermining the principle of equal
opportunity.
● The motivation for education, whether driven by a quest for knowledge or merely job
placement, affects its role in fostering democratic values.
Conclusion:
● Education stands as a cornerstone of modernity, facilitating the transition to
knowledge-based societies and empowering citizens to participate in democratic
governance. However, challenges such as the commodification of education must be
addressed to uphold democratic ideals of equality and empowerment.
Theory and Its Place in Modernity:
The Role of Theory in Modern Knowledge:
● Theory is fundamental to modern knowledge and science, serving as the basis for
understanding and controlling empirical phenomena.
● Scientific work relies on theories, which are continuously tested and refined rather than
accepted on faith or tradition.
● Theories provide explanations for empirical observations and phenomena, offering
insights into how things work or come into existence.
Components of Theory:
● Theoretical frameworks are built on assumptions, perspectives, concepts, definitions,
and relationships.
● Perspectives act as filters through which individuals perceive and interpret reality,
shaping what is seen and understood.
● Assumptions about human nature, the existence of society, and the purposes of
knowledge underpin social theory and influence its direction.
Importance of Definitions and Abstract Concepts:
● Definitions are crucial in theory-building, as they delineate the boundaries and
characteristics of abstract concepts.
● Strong definitions clarify the conditions necessary for something to belong to a
particular concept or category.
Explaining Theoretical Relationships:
● Theoretical concepts are interconnected, and the relationships among them explain
how they function.
● The direction of relationships can be positive or negative, indicating whether concepts
vary in the same or opposite directions.
● Understanding the mechanisms behind theoretical relationships enhances theoretical
understanding and predictive power.
Dual Function of Theory:
● Theory serves the dual function of explaining empirical phenomena and inspiring
insight.
● While theories elucidate how something works or exists, they also offer profound
insights into the essence of social factors and processes.
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