Detailed notes gathered from over 5 textbooks and online sources. Optimised to help in writing exams. Note it does not include ALL lectures and the syllabus is from 2021.
, ANATOMICAL COURSE/PATHWAY .............................................................................................................................................................................. 94
Motor functions ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Parasympathetic functions ............................................................................................................................................................................................... 95
Trochlear Nerve (IV) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Anatomical course ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Motor function ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 96
Clinical relevance .................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 96
Trigeminal nerve (V) ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 97
Anatomical course ................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 97
Divisions .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 99
Clinical relevance: inferior alveolar nerve block ..................................................................................................................................................100
Abducens Nerve (VI) ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................100
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................100
Motor function ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Facial Nerve (VII)......................................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Anatomical Course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................101
Parasympathetic Functions ............................................................................................................................................................................................102
Damage To Facial Nerve...................................................................................................................................................................................................103
Vestibulocochlear Nerve(VIII) ............................................................................................................................................................................................103
Vestibular Nerve ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................104
Cochlear Nerve .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................104
Special sensory functions ................................................................................................................................................................................................104
Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) ..............................................................................................................................................................................................104
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................105
Sensory functions ................................................................................................................................................................................................................106
Vagus Nerve (X).........................................................................................................................................................................................................................106
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................107
Hypoglossal nerve (XII) .........................................................................................................................................................................................................108
Anatomical course ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................109
THE CEREBELLUM ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................110
External Features .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................110
Cerebellar Zonation............................................................................................................................................................................................................110
Olivo-Cerebellar Microzones..........................................................................................................................................................................................110
Cerebellum As An Internal Model .....................................................................................................................................................................................111
Long-Term Depression Of Parallel Fibre ..................................................................................................................................................................111
The Cerebellar Module .....................................................................................................................................................................................................111
Classical/Pavlovian Conditioning ................................................................................................................................................................................111
Implementation Of Marr/Albus Model For Eyeblink/Nmr Conditioning ..................................................................................................112
Lobule HV1 .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................112
Reversible Inactivation Experiments .........................................................................................................................................................................112
Post-Training Inactivation – Blocking Consolidation Process ........................................................................................................................113
Memory Storage In Cerebellar Cortex .......................................................................................................................................................................113
Evidence Suggesting Motor Learning In Cerebellar Cortex..............................................................................................................................113
, Evidence Whether Motor Learning In Cerebellar Cortex Is Mechanism Of Pf-Pc Ltd ..........................................................................113
Summary ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................114
1. Archicerebellum/vestibulocerebellum ..........................................................................................................................................................116
2. Paleocerebellum/spinocerebellum ..................................................................................................................................................................116
3. Neocerebellum /pontocerebelllum ..................................................................................................................................................................117
Internal Structure .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................118
Layers .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................118
Afferent (Excitatory) Connections (Entering Cerebellum) ....................................................................................................................................119
1. MOSSY FIBRE .............................................................................................................................................................................................................119
2. CLIMBING FIBRE ......................................................................................................................................................................................................120
Efferent (Inhibitory) Connections (Leaving The Cerebellum) .............................................................................................................................121
DEEP CEREBELLAR NUCLEI ..........................................................................................................................................................................................122
Cerebellar Hemispheres In Motor Cortex ......................................................................................................................................................................124
CEREBELLAR DISORDERS ....................................................................................................................................................................................................124
MIDLINE LESIONS: TRUNCAL ATAXIA ......................................................................................................................................................................124
ANTERIOR LOVE LESIONS: GAIT ATAXIA ...............................................................................................................................................................124
THALAMUS .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................125
External Features .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................126
Internal Organisation..............................................................................................................................................................................................................126
Functional Organisation of Thalamic Nuclei and Pathways ..................................................................................................................................127
Lateral Nuclear Group .......................................................................................................................................................................................................128
Anterior Nuclear Group ....................................................................................................................................................................................................130
Medial Nuclear Group .......................................................................................................................................................................................................130
Intralaminar Nuclei ............................................................................................................................................................................................................131
Thalamic Reticular Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................................................131
Thalamic Peduncles .................................................................................................................................................................................................................132
LIMBIC SYSTEM ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................134
The Papez Circuit ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................137
The Hypothalamus ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................138
Major Hypothalamic Cell Groups .................................................................................................................................................................................142
Zones In The Hypothalamus...........................................................................................................................................................................................142
Magnocellular Neurosecretory Neurons ..................................................................................................................................................................143
Parvocellular Neurons ......................................................................................................................................................................................................144
The Autonomic Nervous System ............................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Motivation And Emotion .......................................................................................................................................................................................................145
Orbital Frontal Cortex → Neocortex...........................................................................................................................................................................145
Amygdala ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................145
Disorders Of Motivation And Emotion ......................................................................................................................................................................145
Memory .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................145
Hippocampal Formation ..................................................................................................................................................................................................146
Cingulate Gyrus ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Papez Circuit ....................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Cingulum .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................147
, Disorders Of Memory ........................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Limbic Lobe Disorders ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Kluver-Bucy Syndrome .....................................................................................................................................................................................................147
Korsakoff’s Syndrome .......................................................................................................................................................................................................148
The Amygdala..................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Basolateral Nucleus ............................................................................................................................................................................................................141
Central Nucleus ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................141
Corticomedial Nucleus ......................................................................................................................................................................................................141
The Amygdala And Connections With The Hypothalamus And Ans ............................................................................................................141
The Autonomic Nervous System .......................................................................................................................................................................................148
Sympathetic: Anterior/Medial Hypothalamus .......................................................................................................................................................148
Parasympathetic: Posterior/Lateral Hypothalamus ...........................................................................................................................................148
Hypothalamic Control Of The Ans ...............................................................................................................................................................................148
VISUAL PATHWAY ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
The Eye ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
Optical Design .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................150
Composition...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................151
Light Through The Eye .....................................................................................................................................................................................................151
Retina........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................151
Retinal Photoreceptors .....................................................................................................................................................................................................152
Evolution .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................153
Transduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................153
Colour Vision ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................154
The Primate Retina ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................154
The Visual Pathway .................................................................................................................................................................................................................155
Receptive Fields Of Primate Retinal Ganglion Cells .............................................................................................................................................155
Two Eyes One World .........................................................................................................................................................................................................155
Binocular Depth Perception ...........................................................................................................................................................................................156
Visual Pathway .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................156
Purpose Of The Lgn ............................................................................................................................................................................................................157
The Striate Cortex ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................157
Beyond V1 ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................159
The Dorsal And Ventral Streams ..................................................................................................................................................................................159
Damage To V1 .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................160
The Ancient And Modern Visual Pathways .............................................................................................................................................................160
Awareness ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Visual Form Agnosia In Man ..........................................................................................................................................................................................161
The Extent Of The Damage..............................................................................................................................................................................................161
Anatomical Course ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Extracranial ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Intracranial ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................161
Visual Field Deficits .................................................................................................................................................................................................................162
AUDITORY PATHWAY .................................................................................................................................................................................................................163
, Functional Anatomy ................................................................................................................................................................................................................163
Central auditory anatomy .....................................................................................................................................................................................................164
External ear: ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................165
Middle ear ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................165
Inner ear: ................................................................................................................................................................................................................................165
The Cochlea .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................166
Sensory Transduction.............................................................................................................................................................................................................166
Nonlinear Amplification ...................................................................................................................................................................................................167
Auditory Nerve ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Spiral Ganglion Cells ..........................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Frequency Tuning ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Phase Locking .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................168
Central Projections ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................169
Cochlear Nucleus: Parallel Pathways...............................................................................................................................................................................169
Cue Detection ........................................................................................................................................................................................................................170
Output Pathways .................................................................................................................................................................................................................170
Superior Olivary Nucleus ......................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Binaural Sound Localisation Cues ...............................................................................................................................................................................171
First Binarual Centre .........................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Olivocochlear Projections................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Inferior Colliculus .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Integration Centre ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................171
Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN) ....................................................................................................................................................................................171
Auditory Cortex .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................172
Principles Of Cortical Organisation .............................................................................................................................................................................172
Functions Of The Auditory Cortex ....................................................................................................................................................................................173
OLFACTORY AND TASTE ............................................................................................................................................................................................................174
Taste ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................174
Gustatory Pathway .............................................................................................................................................................................................................174
Taste Receptor Molecules ...............................................................................................................................................................................................175
Taste Carried By Facial (VII) And Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve ...................................................................................................................176
Gustatory Pathways In The CNS ...................................................................................................................................................................................177
Olfactory Pathway ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................177
Olfactory Epithelium..........................................................................................................................................................................................................177
Olfactory Mucosa .................................................................................................................................................................................................................179
Olfactory Sensory Neurons .............................................................................................................................................................................................179
One Glomerulus: One Odorant? ....................................................................................................................................................................................180
Connections In The Olfactory Bulb..............................................................................................................................................................................180
Orthonasal Vs Retronasal Olfaction ............................................................................................................................................................................184
Piriform Cortex.....................................................................................................................................................................................................................184
Primary Olfactory Cortex .................................................................................................................................................................................................185
Orbitofrontal Cortex: The Flavour Centre? ..............................................................................................................................................................185
NEUROANATOMY OF INJURY AND REPAIR ......................................................................................................................................................................186
, Axonal Regeneration ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................186
Results Of Axotomy ............................................................................................................................................................................................................186
Wallerian Degeneration.........................................................................................................................................................................................................187
Formation Of Band Of Bunger.............................................................................................................................................................................................189
Upregulating Of Neurotrophins In The Injured Nerve.............................................................................................................................................190
The Neuronal Cell Body Response To Axotomy ....................................................................................................................................................190
Dorsal Root Regeneration.....................................................................................................................................................................................................190
Inflammation And Axonal Regeneration ........................................................................................................................................................................191
Axons Do Not Regenerate Inside CNS In Mammals ...................................................................................................................................................192
Differential Regeneration Into Nerve Grafts ................................................................................................................................................................193
Compression Or Contusion Injuries .................................................................................................................................................................................193
Inhibitory Or Repulsive Molecules ...................................................................................................................................................................................194
Potential Repair Of The Spinal Cord ................................................................................................................................................................................194
NEUROIMAGING .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
Structural Imaging ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
MRI ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................195
Structural MRI ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................196
Diffusion MRI (white matter tracts) ...........................................................................................................................................................................200
Functional Imaging ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................203
EEG ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................203
Functional MRI .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................207
EEG vs fMRI .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................208
Functional NIRS ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................208
Summary Of Functional Methods ......................................................................................................................................................................................211
Combining Techniques...........................................................................................................................................................................................................211
SLEEP AND STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS ..........................................................................................................................................................................212
Objectives .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................212
The EEG .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................212
Synchronising Activity In A Population Of Neurons ............................................................................................................................................213
Sleep ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................213
The Neurobiology Of Sleep And Wakefulness ........................................................................................................................................................214
Stages Of Sleep......................................................................................................................................................................................................................215
Neural And Physiological Changes During Sleep ..................................................................................................................................................215
Purpose Of Sleep ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................216
Ascending Arousal System ..............................................................................................................................................................................................216
Sleep – The Daily Cycle .....................................................................................................................................................................................................221
The Suprachiasmatic Nucleus........................................................................................................................................................................................221
Sleep Disorders..........................................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Narcolepsy..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Encephalitis Lethargica ....................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Insomnia..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................222
Brain Injury And Consciousness ........................................................................................................................................................................................222
Basic Mechanisms Of Consciousness And Coma ...................................................................................................................................................223
, LEARNING AND MEMORY .........................................................................................................................................................................................................224
Types Of Memories ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................224
Declarative Memory ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................224
Non-Declarative/Procedural Memory .......................................................................................................................................................................226
Memory Storage – The Engram ..........................................................................................................................................................................................227
MEMORY AND THE HIPPOCAMPUS – Insights From Animal Models ...............................................................................................................227
Hebb’s rule .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................227
Long-Term Potentiation ...................................................................................................................................................................................................227
Diencephalon And Memory .................................................................................................................................................................................................227
Memory Loss ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................228
Korsakoff’s Syndrome .......................................................................................................................................................................................................228
Alzheimer’s Disease ...........................................................................................................................................................................................................228
NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES ........................................................................................................................................................................................229
Experiments In Neurodegenerative Disease Research............................................................................................................................................229
Parkinson’s Disease .................................................................................................................................................................................................................229
Disproved Theories ............................................................................................................................................................................................................230
Genetic Causes ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................230
Treatment ...............................................................................................................................................................................................................................230
Timeline...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................232
Alzheimer’s Disease.................................................................................................................................................................................................................233
Clinical Phases ......................................................................................................................................................................................................................234
Pathology .....................................................................................................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
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