Sociology Paper one: Education with Theory and Methods
Education part one
Ed 1.1: functionalist theory of education
Durkheim, social solidarity: Social solidarity means everyone has a sense of belonging and has a purpose to meet. Durkheim
says that the education system helps to create social solidarity by transmitting norms and values from a youthful age. This
helps to prepare young people for later life by acting according to rules applied for everyone, these rules are referred to as
‘universalistic standards.’
Parsons, the bridge, and meritocracy: Parsons says school is the vital connection between family and wider society (school
makes children familiar with the wider world). At home, children are judged by particularistic standards, which is based on
that particular child and their condition. On the contrary, universalistic standards apply to everyone equally. Thus, in school,
it is believed that status is achieved rather than ascribed (status is achieved through effort and no influences).
Davis and Moore, role allocation: even though students are given equal opportunity to do well, schools must perform to
allocate pupils to future jobs based on their ability. Therefore, arguing that some inequality is necessary for those best suited
to take the higher professions in society.
The consensus theory: society needs to function like a family, believing that every part of society serves a purpose.
Functionalists believe society is held together by a shared culture, which all its members are socialised. Sharing similar
cultures integrates individuals into society by giving them a sense of solidarity or ‘fellow feeling’ with others.
The organic analogy: functionalists view society like a biological organism such as the human body. A bodies parts fit
together and depend on one another, like society, which is a system of interdependent parts. Each part performs a function
which contributes to the wellbeing of society e.g., the heart can be representative of the family and the family reproduces the
population, which performs the function of primary socialisation.
Marxists argue that functionalists are the blind perspective.
Ed 1.2: marxist theory of education
Karl Marx, 1818 – 1883, put capitalism into two social classes:
1. The capitalists, also known as the bourgeoise, are the minority. They are known as the employers, who own the
production e.g., the land or factories etc. They make their profit by exploiting the majority through their labouring.
2. The majority is the working class, also referred to as the proletariat. They are forced to sell their labour power to
capitalists (this is because they have no other source of income).
Capitalist bosses poorly pay their workers. The work’s alienating, unsatisfying and the workers have no control over their
work. If the workers knew they were being exploited, then conflict would arise between the two classes. For example, the
proletariat would demand higher wages, or even protest for the abolishment of capitalism. Marx believed the proletariat
could easily group together and overthrow the capitalist system. There is also the belief that education is a function to
prevent revolution and maintain capitalism.
Bowles & Gintis, 1976: argue the main function of education in capitalist societies is to reproduce the labour power. Schools
produce obedient workers for this. Education stunts and distorts students.
Correspondence principle & hidden curriculum: schools indoctrinate children into norms and values through indirectly taught
lessons (the hidden curriculum). Thus, pupils are encouraged to accept hierarchy, authority and they must learn to obey.
Furthermore, schools prepare working class children for exploitation, reproducing capitalist needs and perpetuating class
inequality through generations. The correspondence theory explores how education mirrors work e.g., headteachers =
managers and repetitive lessons = repetitive work.
Althusser, 1971, ideological state apparatus: there are two apparatuses to keep the capitalist class in power.
1. The bourgeoisie maintain power by using repressive state apparatuses (RSAs): coercive power (physical) e.g., police
and courts.
2. The bourgeoisie maintain power by using ideological state apparatus (ISAs): keep the proletariat in a state of false
class consciousness. They control people’s ideas, values and beliefs through the education system, religion, and the
media.
Althusser believes schools and educational institutions are part of the ideological state apparatus as they prepare working-
class pupils to accept a life of exploitation. Education legitimates class inequality by producing ideologies that disguise its true
cause. The function of ideology is to make workers accept that inequality is inevitable, they deserve their subordinate
position in society.
Bowles and Gintis, the myth of meritocracy: in their view, the education system helps to prevent meritocracy by legitimating
class inequalities. It does this by making ideologies that serve and justify why inequality is fair, natural, and inevitable. They
argue meritocracy does not exist. The main factor of being successful is down to status; if someone has high income and a
strong family background, rather than educational achievement or ability. Persuades the working class to accept legitimate
inequality and makes it less likely for them to overthrow capitalism. The education system also justifies poverty. Bowles and
Gintis describe this as the ‘poor are dumb’ (theory of failure). This is because poverty is blamed on the individual rather than
the capitalist society. This makes it far more likely that they will ever rebel against the system.
, Ed 1.3: neo-marxist theory of education
‘Neo’ means new, strongly influenced by traditional Marxism. Uses elements of interactionist theory to show how individuals
shape the world around them.
Paul Willis learning to labour, 1977: how working-class kids get working class jobs.
Shows that not all working-class pupils can be indoctrinated. Methods used: conducted an ethnographic study of a group of
lads in a comprehensive school. Unstructured interviews and observations. Concentrated on a group of boys known as the
‘lads.’ They found education boring and pointless, suggesting taking it as a joke and have a laugh. They believed in having fun
and fighting. This equated to them not expecting satisfaction in work and find are good at finding diversions. They had a
resentment attitude. Willis followed them into work (mainly factories). The shop floor culture mirrored the counter school
culture: racism, sexism, little respect for authority. The workers avoided doing work alike when in school and ‘had a laff.’ They
valued working class masculinity. In conclusion, the ‘lads’ saw through the capitalist system and hierarchy, structure, and
norms/values of school. They recognised that they had little chance of progressing higher. Their rebellion to school
guaranteed them failure. The irony is by resisting and helping the resistance, the counterculture destinies them unskilled
work for capitalism.
Henry Giroux, 1984: working class pupils do not passively accept everything they are taught. Some rebel against discipline.
Schools are sites of ideological struggle between classes, ethnicities, cultures, genders. Capitalists have most power but not
all. Education system has relative autonomy – some independence from the economic base, not always shaped by the needs
of capitalism.
Ed 1.4: new right and social democratic perspectives of education
New Right: right wing/used by the Conservative government.
Perspectives: the belief that the state (education system) does not meet people’s needs, and people should meet their own
through the free market. They favour the marketisation of education. Believe that some people are more naturally talented
than others. Favour an education system ran on meritocratic principles. Similarities with Functionalism. Believe education
should socialise pupils into shared values e.g., competition. Competition between schools and empowering consumers will
bring greater diversity – will increase the ability of the school to meet needs.
Chubb and Moe, 1990: argue that state-run education has failed because it has not created equal opportunity, failed needs of
disadvantaged groups, fails to produce skills needed for pupils, and private schools deliver higher quality education.
They compared the achievement of 60,000 pupils from low-income backgrounds in state and private high schools. Through
parent surveys and case studies of ‘failing’ schools being ‘turned around.’ Evidence: those of low backgrounds do around 5%
better in private schools.
They proposed to introduce an Education Market. People would have more of a say and choice. Pupils and parents would be
able to find schools suited to them. Schools would have to compete for more “customers” and improve their “product.”
They suggest two roles for the state: the state imposes a framework/a voucher system, and the state ensures schools
transmit a shared culture/a national curriculum.
‘National identity’ = passing on norms and values to affirm national identity. The aim is to integrate pupils into a single set of
traditions and cultural values. The New Right opposes multicultural education, which reflects the cultures of the different
minority groups in Britain.
Criticism: Gerwitz and Ball argue that competition between schools only benefits the middle class. Critics argue the real cause
of low educational standards is social inequality and inadequate funding of state schools. Contradiction between the New
Rights support for parental choice and the state imposing compulsory national curriculum on all schools. Marxists argue that
education does not impose a shared national culture (as New Right claims) but imposes the culture of a dominant minority
ruling class and devalues the culture of the working class & ethnic minorities.
Social Democratic: left wing/used by the Labour party.
Perspectives: government should heavily invest in education to improve equality of opportunity. Strong influence on British
educational policies in 60s and 70s. Opposed to the Tripartite system. Disagree with Functionalists. Society should be more
meritocratic. Believe education should socialise pupils into shared values e.g., competition.
Education part two
Ed 2.1: gender differences in educational achievement
External factors Internal factors
- Impact of feminism - Equal opportunities policies
The feminist movement has had considerable Feminist ideas have had a major impact on the education system.
success in improving women’s rights and Teachers are now more sensitive to the need to avoid stereotyping.
opportunities through changes in the law. Broadly, The belief that girls and boys are entitled to the same opportunities is
feminism has raised women’s expectations and now part of mainstream thinking and it influences educational
self-esteem. policies, such as:
Angela McRobbie, 1994: studied girls’ magazines. - GIST (girls into science & technology)
