AQA A-Level Psychology: Paper 3
GENDER
AO3 Evaluation Points
Bem Sex-Role + -
Inventory +
Androgyny
Valid and reliable CA: low temporal validity - HOFFMAN + BORDERS
Scale developed by asking 50 males + 50 females to rate 200 traits BSRI created in 1974, almost 50 yrs ago, attitudes and behaviours
in terms of masculinity and femininity, the highest scoring traits regarded acceptable in relation to each gender have changed
became the 20 used on the list. BSRI was piloted with 1000 students, drastically
results broadly corresponded with their own descriptions of their HOFFMAN + BORDERS, 400 undergrads rated items on BSRI, only
gender identity - validity 2 items still endorsed as masc or fem, the rest failed to achieve 75%
High test-retest reliability was achieved on follow up study of smaller agreement
sample a month later achieving same results
Beneficial to mental health - PRAKASH Ethnocentric
Bem suggested androgyny is beneficial to mental health, being more Developed in Stanford Uni, America, tested on undergrads
flexible and adapting to different situations creates more resilient Individualist culture, encourages self-efficacy and competitiveness,
people, less likely to suffer from mental health problems these traits are only desirable in ‘western’ individualist cultures
PRAKASH, assessed 100 married females in India on Androgyny may only be beneficial in a male-dominated society
masculinity/femininity and psychological and physical health MEAD studied a tribe in Papua New Guinea, some successful when
Found women with higher scores on masculinity had lower fully feminine, others valued masc traits more
depression scores = androgyny may not be best everywhere
CA: to benefits to health
May only show that having more masculine traits is more
advantageous in a male-dominated society, androgyny may not be
beneficial to men
Real-life applications parenting - Beck Laxton + Kieran Cooper Issues with questionnaire
Bem suggested there are costs to maintaining sex-role stereotypes: People may not fully know their own personality
limits opportunities, ignores talent. But being able to take on qualities Likert scale is subjective, people interpret the 7 points of agreement
that fit the situation is more adaptive, more opportunities. differently, also can lead to response biases, such as acquiescence
Beck Laxton + Kieran Cooper raised son in gender-neutral way, the bias
press called it child-abuse, shows how ingrained sex-role stereotypes Social desirability bias - self-reporting issue
are
Androgyny should be encouraged, research can help do this
If more took the view of these parents, there would be a gradual
breakdown of gender stereotypes and children growing up with more
opportunities, based on merit not sex
, Biological + -
basis
Research support - DAVID REIMER, GEARHART + REINER Reductionist
Bruce and Brian, MZ twins, botched circumcision, Bruce had his Reduces gender to level to chromosomes and hormones, ignores
penis removed, raised as a girl as ‘Brenda’ but never adjusted, other factors and explanations for gender development:
experienced severe psychological and emotional problems Cognitive - schema
(depression and suicidal thoughts), at 14 learned the truth, Psychodynamic points to interaction with family in childhood
underwent treatment and surgery to assume a male gender identity SLT - social context, we learn gender role by observing and imitating
= biology can override environment in accepting gender identity = gender is more complex than biological influences alone
GEARHART + REINER, 16 males born with almost no penis, 2
raised male and remained male, other 14 raised female, 8 of them
reassigned as male by 16
Research support animal studies - QUADAGNO CA: can’t generalise
Female monkeys deliberately exposed to testosterone prenatally Human behaviour is governed by expectations and deliberate choice
later engaged in more rough-and-tumble play than other females and
were more aggressive
Research support - VAN GOOZEN et al. CA: not replicated - TRICKER et al.
When injected with male or female hormones, transgender Found no differences in behaviours amongst ppts injected with
individuals demonstrate more typical male or female behaviours testosterone or placebo, weakening link between hormones and
gender behaviour
MACCOBY + JACKLIN: if hormones were responsible for gender
identity and behaviours, we would expect to see more differences
between male and female behaviour, however, Maccoby and Jacklin
reported more differences within the sexes than between
Atypical Sex + -
Chromosome
Patterns
Adds to the nature-nurture debate CA: not a causal relationship
Comparing atypical and typical individuals, we can see the Only a correlation between chromosomal abnormalities and
psychological and behavioural differences, e.g: people with Turner’s differences in behaviour, there may be environmental factors
syndrome talk more determining differences, e.g: Turner’s syndrome females being less
Inferred that the differences have a biological basis - result of socially mature may be due to being treated as less mature because
abnormal chromosome patterns of their prepubescent appearance
Shows how innate characteristics have powerful effect on behaviour
Real-world applications - HERLIHY et al. Issues with descriptions of the syndromes due to sampling
Understanding the syndromes has benefits for those with them, can BOADA et al.
make earlier and more accurate diagnoses
, HERLIHY: 87 Australians with Klinefelter’s, those identified + treated Need to identify large number of individuals with the syndrome to get
at young age experienced benefits compared to those diagnosed in an accurate picture of the syndrome, however, this is hard, only those
adulthood with severe symptoms are identified, some don’t even know (2/3s of
= increased awareness of ASCP has real world value, as we can K’s syndrome)
reassure people and offer psychological and medical support BOADA found prospective studies produce more accurate picture,
and found many don’t experience significant cognitive/psychological
problems, many have success in careers, education and personal life
Comparison to typical is inaccurate
Typical is based on stereotypes
Idea T’s syndrome are socially immature is because of comparison to
‘typical’ social maturity levels for females with normal chromosomal
patterns, this is just stereotype
MACCOBY + JACKLIN found more differences within the sexes than
between
Kohlberg’s + -
theory
(cognitive- Research support - SLABY + FREY, DAMON CA: BUSSEY + BANDURA
developmental SLABY + FREY asked children whether they will be a mummy or a Children as young as 4 reported feeling good with playing with
theory) daddy when they grow up, only once aged 4 (GS) did they realise gender appropriate toys and bad about doing the opposite
these traits are stable over time = gender appropriate behaviour starts before age 6
DAMON, told story about a boy who liked to play with dolls, aged 4
children said it was ok, aged 6 said it wasn’t ok
Criticisms on methodology used to formulate theory - BEM
Kohlberg interviewed 2-3 yr olds to assess gender identity, whilst he
may have tailored the wording of the question to suit this age, he may
have overlooked fact that 2-3 yr olds may have a more sophisticated
view of gender than they can express
BEM criticised key test of gender constancy, highlighting that
appearance and context is how we demarcate gender in our society
so no wonder young children get confused
In her own study, 40% of 3-5 olds achieved gender constancy if
shown a naked photo of the child-to-be-identified first, children
understood gender remains despite change in clothing
= theory may not represent what children actually believe
Cross-cultural - MUNROE CA: beta-biased
MUNROE, found evidence for the stages in countries as far afield as Kohlberg suggested it's the same across genders and cultures, but
Napel, Kenya and Samoa we consistently see it’s harder to get boys to be engage in feminine
