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How accurate is it to say that it was the actions of civil rights leaders that explain the increased success of the civil rights campaign in the years 1955-68?

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How accurate is it to say that it was the actions of civil rights leaders that explain the increased success of the civil rights campaign in the years 1955-68? Unit 1F - In search of the American Dream: the USA, c1917-96? Pearson edexcel history comprehensive essay plan

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How accurate is it to say that it was the actions of civil rights leaders that explain the increased success of
the civil rights campaign in the years 1955-68?

- Although leaders played significant role, more convincing to argue grass roots movt. played a larger
role as from 1955: change in tactics (more direct action, de jure vs de facto), larger scale of protest,
made it impossible for movt. to be ignored
- Grass roots movt brought multifaceted success (encouraged legal action, enforced rulings in practice,
changing perception of black Americans)

P1: Civil Rights Leaders

- Martin Luther King
o Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955, turning point into MLK becoming face of civil rights
o Shaped nature of movement  Defined rules of non-violent protest
o Personal connection to federal gov.  Little Rock, Arkansas, 1957 King convinced
Eisenhower to send federal troops to guard 9 students, despite racist governor (Orval
Faubus) shutting the school for the whole of the following year, school eventually integrated
- However, can argue his success more fairly attributed to grass roots movt. (little Rock organized by
NAACP, without huge following leadership of MLK would be pointless)
o Additionally, can be argued action from federal gov. – 1964 Civil Rights Act, 1965 Voting
Rights Act more truly defines ‘success’
- Stokely Carmichael – Black Power
o Radicalized civil rights movt (said non-violence not working after 1966 shooting of James
Meredith on March vs Fear), significant in changing perceptions
o Black Panthers (1966) – 10 -point program, free breakfasts for schoolchildren

P2: Grass roots movement

- Shift from fighting de jure to de facto (key change)  explains increased success
Legal action  NAACP won every case it fought in the 1950s
o However, not enforced by Supreme Court (Brown v Board 1951 – 10 years after ruling only 1
in 100 black children was at an integrated school)
o 1955-1968, protestors began trying to get rulings enforced (e.g. 1961 CORE (1942) + SNCC
(1960) Freedom Rides)
- Larger scale of protest – increased direct action
o March on Washington, 1963 showed huge scale of civil rights activism
o Greensboro sit-in (1960), 1964 riots in major cities
- Encouraged voter registration (1964 SNCC Freedom Summer) led to significant black American
upper + middle classes, growing political influence (changed perception of BA)

o Can be argued they simply took King’s ideas further (i.e. took non-violent protest to places
there was likely to be violence
 However, can equally be argued that leaders drew on ideas of grass roots movt.
(e.g. Birmingham 1963, King saw from CORE and SNCC protests that violence
brought progress) – more convincing as grass roots represent majority of campaign
o Can argue didn’t have direct connection with federal gov (unlike King)
 However, scale of movt made it impossible for federal gov to ignore – Birmingham
1963 Kennedy sent troops
o Can be argued movt. split from 1965 (after this, no marches where civil rights movt. worked
together) therefore ‘success’ gained at end of period cannot be attributed to grass roots
 However, two major legislative gains (1964 Civil Rights ACT, 1965 Voting Rights Act)
made before this, King’s success also declined at end of period (Northern Crusade,
1966 brought no permanent change)

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