Depth Study: America, A nation divided
How America was formed
1623-1732: Britain colonized America ‘Thirteen Colonies’- all colonies were along the eastern coast of the US
Why?: More land for agriculture, raw materials, new trade market, money made through taxation of the
colonists.
Colonies desire political representation, however, legislation curbs this (Sugar Act), which leads to the American
revolution (1765).
Sugar Act: Britain enforces a tax (lower than previously) to curb smuggling and limit colonists to British sugar.
Boston Tea Party: British tea dumped in river due to taxation without representation. Show of defiance
against the British.
1774: First Continental Congress: 12 of the colonies discuss Britain. 1st show of unity, however nothing was
decided.
1775: 2nd Continental Congress: due to violence breaking out between British soldiers and the colonists, led by
George Washington. Established a Continental Army and George W as Commander in chief. Also sent the Olive
Branch Petition to King George III in hope of peace, however he rejected this.
4th July 1776: Declaration of Independence- The 13 colonies severed their independence from Britain.
1781: Articles of Confederation: Established the US as 13 states which each had an equal voice in congress. It
allowed individual states to keep their independence, and congress could maintain armies and make treaties, but
not levy taxes or control commerce. Gave military control to George W so that he could win the wars for them.
Drawbacks: Many viewed it an incapable of governing the new nation in times of peace, as they would no
longer have a common enemy. Additionally, many were dissatisfied with it as the Congress could not pay
soldiers or debts, they were unable to remain in touch with the people, they feared tyranny, and they
believed that a republic could not serve such a large nation.
Why were the AOCs formed?- Wartime urgency meant that they needed to be united against GB in order
to not become part of the British empire again, or be split apart by GB (e.g. GB paying off one state to join
the empire again).
The establishment of the American constitution
3rd September 1783: Treaty of Paris: Negotiated by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and John Jay, it formally
ends the American wars of independence (with an American victory). Internationally recognizes the USA as a
country, and GB gives most the Northwest Territory which doubles the size of the new nation.
September 1786: Many problems including bankruptcy, interstate rivalries and domestic insurrection (west
Massachusetts, farmers rebelling led by Daniel Shays).
25th May 1787: Philadelphia convention: Nationalists (George W, Alexander H, James M) support the creation of
a new government. ‘Founding Fathers’ met to make a new constitution with a stronger central government.
Congress was made bicameral (made up of two houses- House of Representatives and the Senate), with the
lower house having proportional representation, and the upper house with all states having two seats (the Great
Compromise). The federal government could now levy taxes and coin money. There were 7 Articles, however it
lacked a Bill of Rights.
, Articles of the constitution: Article I outlines legislation. Article II outlines the powers of the president
(however this was done broadly and unclearly). Article III outlines the power of the Supreme Court. Article
IV outlines the relationships between the federal and state governments. Article V outlines how the
constitution can be legally amended. Article VI outlines how those who adopt the constitution are bound
under oath. Article VII outlines the authority the constitution has in the states that adopt it.
Why was a new constitution needed?: - In order to allow the federal government to levy taxes to allow
debts to be paid off, soldiers paid, the bankruptcy and domestic insurrection (1786) sorted. If they did not
pay the soldiers, then they could be defenseless to attack from GB and Spain, as the soldiers could refuse
to fight. Furthermore, a stronger central government was needed in order to keep in touch with the
people and individual states, as they had lost their common enemy. Additionally, a stronger central
government would reconcile interstate rivalries and would give them the power to regulate commerce.
Drawbacks: the convention was controversial as proceedings were blocked from public view. Additionally,
there was lots of controversy around representation, as smaller states were worried that they would not
be able to exert national authority due to their size (e.g. Virginia is 12x the size of Delaware). On top of
this, North America was worried that the 3/5th compromise (every 5 slaves would count as 3 free people
to determine how many congressmen each state would be allotted) would disadvantage them (as there
were more slaves in the South), however the South argued that as their states were smaller, this would
give them a ‘leg up’. Additionally, the juristical powers of the federal and state governments were not
clear.
What problems did the new constitution highlight?: -The contentious issue of slavery (3/5th compromise),
the North and South divide, the difference in views and beliefs (especially over slavery) between the North
and South.
13th September 1788: New York is the seat of the new government.
4th March 1789: The constitution is formally adopted.
1789: The constitution is formally amended after James Madison proposed 19 alterations (12 of which were
adopted) including the right to bear arms, the freedom of speech, right to peaceful assemble etc.
1790: Hamilton’s Economic Plan (1st financial policy of the US)
29th May 1790: The constitution is ratified.
1791: Bank of the US founded
10th December 1791: The Bill of Rights is ratified (brought into force)
To avoid one branch of the government becoming too powerful than another, the constitution established checks
and balances, by building a system that split power between the three branches: legislative, executive and
judicial, and this followed the ideas of Enlightenment philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, with each branch
being able to have a say in the decisions of the other. This ensured that no one branch could seize too much
power or become tyrannical.
Delegated powers: exclusive to the Federal government (e.g. maintenance of the armed forces and trade)
Reserved powers: all powers not specifically for the Federal government (e.g. the establishment of
schools)
Concurrent powers: powers shared simultaneously between the Federal and State governments.
Dual federalism: the period where the federal and state governments were very separated due to checks and
balances. Little overlap between these governments was seen during this period (e.g. resource sharing).
, Drawbacks: It could not prevent the federal or state governments from invading the jurisdiction of one
another, and it did not clearly define the jurisdictions of each. Cases that highlighted this included when
Thomas J tried to prevent Washington from forming a national bank, and at the Hartford Convention of
1814.
The North-South divide
The Federalists: George W, Alexander H and John A. Favoured a powerful central gov and the implementation of
a national bank. Supported the abolition of slavery and represented merchants, bankers and manufacturers in the
1st election. Drew support mainly from cities in the North and Episcopalians and Quakers.
1792 Democratic- Republicans: Established by supporters of Thomas J and James M. Favoured a de-centralised
gov and focused on state power and individuality over federal. Supported slavery and its expansion and
represented farmers and planters in the 1st election. Drew support from the South (countryside) and Baptists,
Methodists and Presbyterians.
1796: Public Land Act. Authorised the sale of federal lands in 640-acre sections for $2 per acre (established the
pattern of Western Expansion)
1796- 1st election: Federalists (John Adams) win with 51.1% to the Democratic-Republicans' (Thomas Jefferson)
48.9%.
Consequences: Would have likely brought about more interstate rivalries and have highlighted the North-
South divide (due to the closeness of the election, which would make it hard to come to agreements, as
they both had very separate and different political and religious beliefs). The South may have believed
that this was proof that the North had more power and was suppressing them, further developing the
divide.
1798 Alien and Sedition Acts: Created due to fear of war with French and it largely targeted French and Irish
Americans. 4 national security acts (Naturalization, Alien Friends, Alien Enemies and Sedition) passed by John
Adams which restricted the rights and actions of US immigrants and limited the 1 st amendment (freedom of
speech and press). Raised residency requirements for citizenship from 5 to 14 years, allowed the President to
deport ‘aliens’ and permitted their arrest, imprisonment and deportation during wartime. It now also became a
crime to speak against the government. Directed against DRs, a party usually favoured by new citizens.
Worries/Problems: Made the government look tyrannical, highlighted the divide in the Founding Fathers,
opposed the Bill of Rights, and highlighted the North-South divide.
Kentucky and Virginia: Passed legislation against the above acts. Kentucky declared the acts to be void and of no
force, while Virginia declared the acts to be unconstitutional.
1798 Fries’ Rebellion: Revolt of 60 armed German Americans led by John Fries in Pennsylvania protesting the
House Tax implemented by the John Adams administration. They freed imprisoned tax non-payers and stopped
tax assessors from completing their jobs. Showed how people were willing to use force against the government.
1801 Judiciary Act: Law passed by John A during the last days of his presidency that altered the Supreme Court to
make sure that more of his supporters were in it (he appointed several ‘Midnight judges’ to fill the new 16
judgeships, all of which were his supporters). Thomas J, who was newly elected, had to change this, as it caused a
judicial crisis.
